Turkey
Turkey
Turkey lies between Asia and Europe, serving as a bridge geographically, cul turally and economically. Its location on two continents plays a central part in Turkish history and gives the country a major advantage in serving the markets of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.
Turkey is situated between 262 and 455 E, in the temperate middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. In the west it borders on Greece and Bulgaria, in the east on Georgia, Armenia, Nakhichevan and Iran, and in the south on Iraq and Syria. The area of Turkey is 774,815 square kilometres. 97 % of Turkey lies in Asia (the Anatolian Plateau) and 3% in Europe (Thrace). The seacoasts of Turkey stretch for 8,210 kilo metres along the Mediterranean in the south, the Aegean in the west and the Black Sea in the north. In the northwest there is also the impor tant inland Sea of Marmara, between the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, impor tant waterways that connect the Black Sea with the rest of the world. The country is roughly rec tangular in shape, measuring 1,600 kms from east to west, and 650 kms from north to south.
The high plateau region of Anatolia rises progressively towards the east and is divided by valleys formed by 15 rivers, including the Tigris and the Euphrates which originate in eastern Anatolia and flow southward to the Persian Gulf through Syria and Iraq. The largest river entire ly within Turkey is Kizilirmak, which flows north ward past Ankara to the Black Sea. Among the numerous lakes there are some, such as Lake Van which are as large as inland seas.
The topography is extremely varied and cli matic conditions differ widely among regions. The major part of the country consists of high land plateaus surrounded by mountainous areas, which rise towards the east and are dom inated by Mount Ararat with a height of 5,165 meters. In the east, winter temperatures may fall to -405C while in the southeast, summer temperatures may reach 45aC.
With 80 administrative provinces, Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions: the Marmara Region, the Black Sea Region, the Mediterranean Region, the Eastern Anatolian Region, the Aegean Region and the Central Anatolian Region, each of which possesses unique climatic and ecological features.
The Republic of Turkey, founded in 1923, has its roots in two historical resources well in the depths of the past. One of these resources inherited by modern Turkey is the successful and bright history of the Turks over a time frame of more than 4,000 years. The other is the fact that Turks have settled in Anatolia since the 11th century.
The first Turkish tribe that is mentioned is the Huns. Clear records about the Huns made their appearance in the 8 th Century B.C. Chinese sources refer to the Huns as Hiung-nu and its is here that the culture of horseback migration first makes its appearance in history. The Huns who migrated to the West in time achieved superiority over the Germans, of the same horseback discipline as themselves, and. over the highly cultured Romans, because of their splendid state of readiness and amazing mobile capabilities
Founded in 552 AD by Bumin Kagan, the Gokturks engaged in widespread diplomatic activity . Although the Gokturks were forced to become subjects of China in the 7th century, they regained their independence in 632, led by a hero named Kutluk. In the year 716 Kutluk's son Bilge Kagan became the ruler, and ensured a period of peace and prosperity with the aid of his brother Kultegin and his father's elderly vezir, Tonyukuk. This lasted until the year 745. The famed Orhun epitaphs from this period are made up of the tombstone inscriptions of Tonyukuk (d. 720), Kultegin (d. 731) and Bilge Kagan (d. 734).
The rule of the Gokturks was brought to an end in the year 745 by the Uygur, who were of the same ethnic stock as themselves. In this manner all the Turks who had converged under the banner of the Gokturks were dispersed to that of the Uygurs and other tribes. It is because of the Uygurs that the agricultural basin became known as Turkistan. In the year 1229, the Mongols put an end to Uygur sovereignty; the Uygurs
Contacts between the Turks and Moslems commenced in the beginning of the 8th century and some of the Turks favoured Islam. However the pro-Arab policies of the Omayads (661-750 A.D.) restricted these relations somewhat. It is because of this that a major part of the political struggle against the Omayads at that time, helping the Abbaside dynasty to attain sovereignty, rested on the efforts of Moslem Turks and Iranians of the area (750 A.D.). Many Moslem Turks took office in the Abbasside government, and because of this, great interest in the Islamic world spread among the Turks beyond the River Ceyhun. This interest became even more pronounced when the Caliph of the time Muktasim established an elite army formed only of Turks in 835. Commercial relationships also played a major role in the spread of Islam into the steppes of Central Asia. Turkish Sufi dervishes who joined the caravans were instrumental in converting the Turks to Islam. The Turks had become Moslem by the 10th century, and this resulted in the achievement of political unity. Following these developments, the first Muslim Turkish state was formed by the Karahans.
The Karahans ruled between 990-1212 in Turkistan and Maveraunnehir and put an end to the sovereignty of the Samanogullari. The founder of the state is Satuk Bugra Khan, and this is inscribed in the legend praising Bugra Khan. The reign of the Karahans is especially significant from the point of view of Turkish culture and art history. It is during this period that mosques, schools, bridges and caravansarays were constructed in the cities. Buhara and Semerkand became centres of learning. In this period, the Turkish language found the means to develop.
Among the most important works of the period is Kutadgru Bilik (translated as The Knowledge That Gives Happiness) by Yusuf Has Habib, written between the years 1069-1070. It is a political work expressed in verse. This work in fact comprises knowledge for the ruler, in which Yusuf personalises his key principles of justice, power (state), comprehension (reason) and belief.
The Ghaznavi state was formed in the year 963 by the Turkish ruler Bevuktekin and is one of the first Moslem Turkish states. It is in the time of Bevuktekin's son Mahmut that the state lived its brightest period (977-1030). Mahmut realized 17 sorties and missions into India; he worked relentlessly for the expansion of Islam in the area and expanded the borders of the state from Toharistan and Maveraunnehir to Punjab, Multan and some districts of the Sind. During the time of Mahmut's son Mes'ud, the Ghaznavids lost a large part of their lands, following the battle of Dardanakan (1040) against the founder of the Great Selcuk Empire Tugrul Bey. The Ghaznavids finally collapsed in 1186 and were assimilated by the Oguz.
The Turkish scholar Ebu Reyhan el-Beyruni, brought to Gazne by Sultan Mahmut from Harzem, helped make this period an important one within Islamic cultural history. Beyruni, who wrote his works in Arabic, also wrote the famed Kitabn'i-Hind (the Book of India), which discussed the language, the literature, the religion and philosophy of India, from the campaigns of Mahmut. The famed work by the poet Firdevsi, the Sehname, was also presented (in 1009) to Sultan Mahmut during this period.
The Oguz, who destroyed the Ghaznavid state, succeeded in putting Anatolia, Iraq, the southern parf of the Caucasus, Azerbaijan and the north of Iran under Turkish rule. The Oguzs had first formed the Gokturk Empire in the 6th century; after the expansion of Islam among the Turks, the Oguz came to be called the Turkmens among the other Turks.
Selcuk, whose name the Selcuk Dynasty adopted, is the son of Dukak of the line of Kiniks, which is a branch of the Ucoks of the Oguz. Tugrul Bey and Cagri (Cakir) Bey are the grandsons of Selguk, in whose time they, and the Oguzs, known as the Seljuks in history, subjected Horasan, defeated the Ghaznavid ruler Mesud and established the Great Seljuk Empire in 1040. In 1071, the nephew of Tugrul Bey, Alp Arslan (1063-1072) fought the battle of Malazgirt and having defeated the Byzantine Emperor's forces in this battle opened the doors of Anatolia to the Muslim Turk.
The year 1071 is considered to be the beginning of the Turks and that of Islam in Anatolia. It is following this date that the Turks fully conquered the whole of Anatolia and established the Anatolian Selcuk state in Anatolia as a part of the Great Seljuk Empire. Although the first ruler and founder of the Anatolian Seljuks Suleyman Shah (d. 1086) first established the capital in Iznik, in Bursa, he was later compelled to move the capital well into the interior of Anatolia, to Konya, during the time of the First Crusade.
The first schooling institutions, the Moslem theological medreses, were formed in Anatolia during the time of Kilic Arslan (1153-1192). Following the establishment of two medreses by Kilic Arslan, one in Konya and the other in Aksaray, the medreses of Sircali in Konya (1242-1243), Karatay (1251), Ince Minareli (1252-1253), Atabekkiye (after 1251-1268), Gokmedrese in Sivas (1271), Buruciyye (1271-1272), Cifte Minareli (1271), and the Cacoglu in Kirsehir (1272) were established.
The Seljuks also attributed much importance to the medical sciences and in almost all their cities treatment institutions called Darush-Shifa, Darul-Afiye and Darus-Sihna and hospitals were set up. The main medical treatment centres are the Gevher Nesibe in Kayseri (1205), the Izzettin I Keykavus in Sivas (1217), the Torumtay in Amasya (1266), the Muinuddin Pervane in Tokat (1275) and the Pervaneoglu Ali in Kastamonu (1272).
Because of the influence of Persian aspects coming from Iran among the enlightened, the administrators, the men of arts and the traders, the Anatolian Seljuk state became increasingly affected by Iranian culture and language.
The Period of Principalities
Political unity in Anatolia was disrupted from the time of the collapse of the Anatolian Selcuk State at the
beginning of the 14th century (1308), and until the beginning of the 16th century each of the regions in the country fell under the domination of Beyliks (Principalities). The Principalities were formed in the following regions : * The Eshrefoguls in Beysehir (1328), the Karesioguls in Balikesir-Bergama (1336), the Inancoguls in Denizli (1368), the Hamidoguls in Beysehir (1328), the Karesioguls in Balikesir-Bergama (1336), the Inancoguls in Denizli (1368), the Eshrefoguls in Beysehir (1328), the Karesioguls (1368), the Hamidoguls in the Isparta-Antalya area (1391), the Aydinoguls in the Aydin-lzmir area (1405), the Saruhanoguls in Manisa (1410), the Mentesoguls in the Mugla area (1425), the (1433), the Candaroguls in Kastamonu (1461), the Dulkadiroguls in the Maras area (1521), and the Ramazanoguls in the Cukurova area (1608). The Osmanoguls, who were to eventually destroy these Principalities and establish political unity in Anatolia, lived in the Eskis.ehir, Bilecik and Bursa areas. (* Dates of termination)
On the other hand, the area in central Anatolia east of the Ankara-Aksaray line as far as the area of Erzurum remained under the administration of the llhani General Governor until 1336. The infighting which resulted upon the death of the llhan ruler Ebu Said Bahadir Khan in 1338 gave the prinicipalities in Anatolia their complete independence. In addition to this, new Turkish principalities were formed in the localities previously under llhan occupation. One of these is the Eretna Prinicipality formed by the Uygur Turks at Eretna in the Kayseri-Sivas region. In the same area, another principality, the Turkmen Kadi Burhanettin State, was formed in the second part of the century. In this period, the Karakoyuns and the Akkoyuns started political activities in Eastern Anatolia.
During the 14th century, the Turkmens, who made up the western
Turks, started to re-estabilsh their previous political sovereignty in the Islamic world.
Rapid developments in the Turkish language and culture took place during the time of the Anatolian Principalites. In this period, the Turkish language became used in the sciences and in literature, and became the official language of the Principalities. New medreses were established and progress was made in the medical area during this period.
Gulsehri, Nesimi (d. 1404) and Ahmedi (1335-1412) are the prominent Turkish language poets of the 15th century.
In the cities, the Turkish communities composed of villagers and Turkmen migrants started to form guilds among the more populous craftsmen, calling themselves "Ahi". These guilds pioneered the development of city life.
The Ottoman Principality was founded by a Turkmen tribe living on the Turkish-Byzantine border. The geographic location of the principality and the weak state of the Byzantines combined to make the Ottoman principality the strongest state within the Islamic world by the 14th century.
When, in the year 1402, Tamerlane defeated the forces of Yildirim Beyazit, the principalities which had come under Ottoman sovereignty all became independent. A unity between them was achieved again in the middle of the 15th Century.
When Fatih Sultan Mehmet conquered the Byzantine capital in 1453, the Ottoman state became the strongest of the time. The tolerant approach taken by Fatih Sultan Mehmet to other religions and to the adherents thereof became a tradition adopted by his successors. Following the capture of Istanbul, the Orthodox Church was freed from obedience to the Catholic Church and granted its independence
On the other hand, the technical superiority of the Ottoman army began to be evident; Selim the first (1512-1520) conquered the Safevi Ruler Shah Ismail (1514) with such an army and thereby obliterated the Mamelake state in 1517. At the end of these battles, the Ottomans had added, in addition to the major part of east Anatolia, the lands of Syria and Egypt, and those lands considered holy in the Islamic world- Mecca and Medine-to their territories.
The brightest period of the Ottoman State was during the reign of Sultan Suleyman (1520-1566) when the boundaries of the Empire spread from the outskirts of Vienna to the Bay of Basra and from the Crimea to an expanded north Africa as far as Ethiopia.
The Ottoman Empire continued to acquire territory until the middle of the 17th century. In 1683, it suffered its first major loss with defeat in the siege of Vienna.
Sultan Mehmet "the Conqueror"
The Turkish Language
The geographical area where the Turkish language spread in parallel to Turkish histo ry is very extensive. It extends over a large geographical area in Europe and Asia and shows many variations of dialect. Today, it is spoken in the Azeri, the Turkmeni, the Tartar, the Uzbeki, the Bashkurti, the Nogay, the Kirghiz, the Kazak, the Yakuti, the Cuvas and other dialects. The Turkish spoken in Turkey is that of the Turkish language group com ing from the southwestern branch of the Uralic-Altaic language family. The name of the script of the language spoken in Turkey is called Turkish. In the classification of the Turkish spoken in Turkey proper, the dialect falls into the southwestern dialects of the Western Turkish language family and also into the dialects of the Oguz Turkmeni Language group. When the Turkish spoken in Turkey is considered in a historical con text, it can be classified in three separate periods because of the inherent characteris tic of each of the periods:
- Old Anatolian Turkish (old Ottoman -
between the 13th and the 15th centuries)
- Ottoman Turkish (from the 16th to the
19th century)
- Turkey Turkish (20th century)
At present in the Republic of Turkey spo ken and written Turkish is a derivative of the old Anatolian Turkish and Ottoman Turkish.
The first written scripts of the Turkish language to be found are the Orhun
Monuments which were carved on stone towards the end of the 7th and the first half of the 8th century. The Orhun monuments, which were raised first in honour of Kultigin in 732, then for Bilge Khan in 735 and for Tonyukuk in 720, are still considered master pieces of Turkish language, literature and history from the point of view of their con tent and language. The perfection of the lan guage used in the records, which document the social and the political life of the Gokturk Dynasty, proves that Turkish, as a language of letters, has been in use since ancient times.
The most important event in Turkey after the First World War and the War of Independence was the disappearance of the institutions, social classes, philosophy of life, style and language of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, based on a new regime, mentality and social order.
The founder of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal, the father of the Turks, ATATURK believed that Turkey should bene fit from the culture of the West in order to reach the level of contemporary modern civilisations. It is because of this that a ver sion of the Latin alphabet reflecting Turkish phonetics was adopted in 1928. The Turkish Language Institute was established in 1932 to carry out linguistic research and con tribute to the natural development of the language.
Turkish Language and Literature
Turkish belongs to the Altai branch of the Uralo-Altaic linguistic family. Through the span of history, Turks have spread over a wide geographical area. Turkish-speaking people have lived in a wide area from today's Mongolia to the North coast of the Black sea, the Balkans, East Europe, Anatolia, Iraq and a wide area of northern Africa. Due to the great distances involved, various dialects and accents have emerged. The history of the language is divided into three main groups, old Turkish (from the 7th to the 13th centuries), mid-Turkish (from the 13th to the 20th) and new Turkish (from the 20th century onwards.) The Turkish spoken in the country today is the modern version of the western branch of mid-Turkish. The Ottoman language evolved as a written language in the second period of the western branch of the Turkish language and was used from the conquest of Istanbul to the end of the Ottoman Empire, from the 15th to the 20th century. During this period, Arabic and Persian words invaded the Turkish language in large numbers, and it consequently became one that was concocted from three different languages. During the Ottoman period, which spanned 5 centuries, the natural development of Turkish was hampered. After the constitution of 1908, the first steps towards a linguistic movemnt which was to pave the way for the emergence of contemporary Turkish were taken in Thessaloniki in 1911. This was the "new language movement". In 1928, five years after the proclamation of the Republic, the Arabic alphabet was replaced by the Latin alphabet, which in turn speeded up the movement to rid the language of foreign words. The Turkish Language Institute was established in 1932 to carry out linguistic research and contribute to the natural development of the language. As a consequence of these efforts, modern Turkish is a literary and cultural language developing naturally and
free of foreign influences.
The history of Turkish literature may be divided into three periods, reflecting the history of Turkish civilization and culture, as follows: the period up to the adoption of Islam, the Islamic period and the period under western influence.
Prior to the adoption of Islam, Turkish literature was the joint product of the Turkish clans and was mostly oral. The oldest known examples of Turkish writings are on obelisks dating from the late 7th and early 8th centuries. The "Orhun Monumental inscriptions" written in 720 for Tonyukuk, in 732 for Kultigin and in 735 for Bilge Kaghan are masterpieces of Turkish literature with their subject matter and perfect style. Turkish epics dating from those times include the Yaratilis., Saka Oguz, Kagan, Gokturk, Uygur and Manas.
The "Book of Dede Korkut", put down in writing in the 14th century, is an extremely valuable work that preserves the memory of the epic era in beautiful language.
Following Turkish migrations into Anatolia in the wake of the Malazgirt victory in 1071, the establishment of various Beyliks in Anatolia and the eventual founding of the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires set the scene for Turkish literature to develop along two distinct lines, with "divan" or classical literature drawing its resources from the Arabic and Persian languages and Turkish folk literature remaining deeply rooted in Central Asian traditions.
Divan poetry had its roots in pre-lslamic Arab poetry. After the adoption of Islam, artists of various nations excelled in this genre, first in Arabic, then in Persian and eastern and western Turkish and finally in Urdu. Islamic poetry uses common techniques and themes which reflect a common philosophy and sense of beauty. Although predominantly Islamic, the influence of older cultures is also in evidence. Islamic culture, inclusive of the forms, techniques, themes and philosophy of Islamic
literature, was introduced to the Turks by the Iranians, who adopted Islam at an earlier date. Divan poets did not have independent philosophies, but were content to express the same ideas in different ways. The magnificence of the poet came from his artistry in finding original and beautiful forms of expression. Divan poets were always in love, and even though this was looked upon as an incurable illness the poet was happy. It was their belief that the cure for this illness was the illness itself. The most famous of the Divan poets were Baki, Fuzuli, Nedim and Nefi.
Turkish literature, after the adoption of Islam and the political developments in the country's history, emerged in two different forms. One was that of the well-educated people in courts, mansions, schools and related circles, and the other was mostly oral folk literature, popular in the rural areas and among the Janissary. Initially based on two foreign literary traditions, Arab and Persian, Divan literature gradually stopped being merely imitative and took on Ottoman national characteristics.
To a certain extent, the Turkish folk literature which has survived till today reflects the influence of Islam and the new life-style and form of the traditional literature of Central Asia after the adoption of Islam. Turkish folk literature comprised anonymous works of bards, poems and Tekke (mystical religious retreats) literature. All of these were similar in form and expression but different in context. Yunus Emre who lived in the second half of the 13th and early 14th centuries was an epoch-making poet and sufi (mystical philosopher) expert in all three areas of folk literature as well as in divan poetry. Important figures of bard literature were Karacaoglan, Asik Omer Erzurumlu Emrah and Kayserili Seyrani.
Contemporary Turkish literature can be said to have taken its roots from the changes in society and cultural life
that came about after the proclamation of the Tanzimat in 1839, which was the earliest outward sign of the process of westernization. In line with the westernization movement, new literary genres, such as the novel, short stories and drama, were adopted and Turkish literature attained modern standards. The direction of Turkish literature changed upon the adoption of western concepts. Relations with the west, the study of foreign languages by intellectuals, the translation of western literary works into Turkish and acquaintance with western schools of thought all brought about a change in culture and civilization. The changes in social, economic and political life were reflected in literature and the quest for change continued till the proclamation of the Republic. The distinguishing characteristic of the era in literature was the concern with intellectual content rather than esthetic values or perfection of style. The latest period in literature, which is known as the Turkish literature of the Republican period, came to be influenced by the following literary schools, after the Divan literature had been abandoned: Tanzimat (reforms), Servet-i Funun (scientific wealth), Fecr-i Ati (dawn of the new age) and ulusal edebiyat (national literature).
Leading figures in the first period (1860-1880) in Tanzimat literature were §inasi, Ziya Pasa, Namik Kemal and Ahmet Mithat Efendi. Leading figures during the second period (1880-1896) were Recaizade Mahmut Ekrem, Abdulhak Hamit, Sami Pasazade Sezai and Nabizade Nazim. The aim of the Tanzimat authors was ! to create a western type of literature in the country. They took it upon themselves to write at least a few works, ranging from novels to poetry. During this period a large number of foreign works were translated or adapted.
The second impetus to the movement for a western-style type of literature came in the next generation when a group of young artists started publishing the literary magazine Servet-i Funun in 1895-1900. This group, called the Servet-i Fununcu or Edebiyat-i Cedideci (New Literature), tried to imbue the characteristics of French literature into Turkish literature. The drive which had begun in the Tanzimat period for simplification of the language lost momentum, and Arabic and Persian words again came into vogue. A flowery and ornate style was adopted, but the spirit and manner of literary expression was European. Although poetry was still written in traditional prosodical metre poetic themes and choice of subjects were very new. Novels now included analyses and realistic detail, and the first modern short stories were written in this period. These writers in general held a pessimistic view on life and were introspective. While the Tanzimat advocates had believed that art should be in the service of society, the Servet-i Fununcus upheld the principle that art should be for art's sake.
This group produced highly successful works of art in the field of poetry, novels, stories, plays, criticism and memoirs and numbered among their representatives Tevfik Fikret, Cenap Sahabettin, Suleyman Nazif, Halit Ziya Usakligil, Mehmet Rauf, Huseyin Cahit Yalcin and Ahmet Hikmet Muftuoglu. Others who adopted a western approach, but were outside the group, were Ahmet Rasim and Huseyin Rahmi Gurpmar, who supported new Turkish literature.
When the Second Constitutional period started, some members of the Servet-i Funun formed a short-lived movement called Fecr-i Ati (dawn of the new age). They used simpler language and introduced symbolism, impressionism and romanticism in their works, thereby bridging the gap between European style Turkish literature and the National Literature which was to follow. The most interesting Fecr-i Ati poet was Ahmet Hasjm. Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu and Refik Halit Karay. who initially
were in the Fecri Ati at the start of their careers, attained their true literary identities later in the National Literature Movement.
Mehmet Akif Ersoy and Yahya Kemal Beyatli initially followed independent courses and later joined the National Literature movement. The Tanzimat, Servet-i Funun and Fecri Ati groups who came together to create a modern Turkish literature made great strides towards this aim, but their works stopped short of being a national literature with distinctive characteristics. In spirit, it was French-oriented, in language and style it was traditional and Ottoman.
As the Ottoman Empire declined, most Turkish intellectuals were convinced that for the sake of the country's future the Ottoman concept of a religious community should be abandoned in favour of nationalism. The Turkist and nationalist movements stemmed from this conviction.In all fields there was a quest for national identity. The yearning for works written in the Turkish language and Turkish metre, in line with Turkish tastes and culture, created a trend known as National Literature between the years 1911 and 1923. The leading literary figures of this period were Ziya Gokalp, Omer Seyfettin, Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Yusuf Ziya Ortac, Faruk Nafiz Camlibel, Enis Behig Koryurek, Kemalettin Kamu, Aka Gunduz, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu, Halide Edip Adivar, Halit Karay, Resat Nuri Guntekin, Ahmet Hikmet Muftuoglu, Necip Fazil Kisakurek, Halide Nusret Zorlutuna, Sukufe Nihal, Peyami Safa and Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar.
The Republic encompassed practically all national literary figures in the fields of culture, ideology and literature.
The first decade of the Republic bore the stamp of the National Literature movement, wherein the simple clear language, poetic forms and syllabic metre of folk literature and topics from Turkey were favoured.
The topics, written in simple language, were taken from real life and mirrored the conditions of the country. A unity was created of which all artists, Islamic, Ottomanist, traditionalist and individualist, could be a part, because the matter in hand was not the concept of the trend/national literature, but the period itself of national literature.
Novels, stories, plays and poems of the period encompassing the years 1911-1923 highlighted nationalistic ideas, stressing national awareness, the continuity of the nation through the course of history and the need to westernize while retaining national characteristics. Turkish romanticism was at its height in this period.
Yahya Kemal Beyatli made his debut in 1912 and won fame during the War of Independence. Till the day he died he did not tire in his quest for pure poetry.
Mehmet Akif Ersoy, considered an Islamic poet, made a great impact on both intellectuals and the masses with his book of poetry "Safahat" (stages) in which he treats the poverty and underdevelopment of various cities (primarily Istanbul) and countries and the alien aims of the intellectuals.
After the First World War and the Turkish War of Liberation, an important phenomenon took place in Turkey. Upon the fail ot the Ottoman Empire, a new state was established. The Ottoman institutions, social strata, philosophy, language and style gave way to Republican ideas, a new social system and parliamentary rule based on the will of the people. The founders of the Republic were the officers who had won the War of Liberation and the intellectuals who had been educated during the Second Constitutional Period of the Ottoman Empire. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, a great commander and a man of civilization and culture, made a series of reforms, hand in hand with these intellectuals, which transformed Turkey's social, economic and cultural structure. The first literary works in the period of the
Republic bear the marks of this political, communal and cultural framework. The Nationai Literature Movement bom out of the nationalist ideology which had prepared the ground for the Republic produced its most mature works during the first years of the Republic. A Turkish nationalist group of intellectuals influenced the social and economic institutions during this period. They believed that they had to use the everyday language of the people to be able to reach and become a part of the masses. To their works they also added the fine taste of the Edebiyat-i Cedide writers whom they had admired in their youth. This synthesis, associated with the magazine "Geng Kaiemler" (young writers), was reflected in the works of Ahmet Hikmet Muftuoglu, Refik Haiit Karay and Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu. In a way they were adapting Halit Ziya Usakhgil's stylism to everyday language. They were completely different from the Servet-i Funun writers in that they dealt with social issues and realities of the country in their work. Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu one of the greatest story writers and novelists of the Truce Years and the Republican era, dwelt on the social, political and cultural changes that had been wrought in Turkey since the Tanzimat.
Halide Edip Adivar began her literary career in the Second Constitutional period, and like Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu produced her best works in the Truce Years and the Republican period.As opposed to the critical and objective viewpoint adopted by Yakup Kadri, her works reflected warmth, liveliness and excitement. Most of her work was in the form of letters and memoirs.She recounted her impressions rather than engaging in lengthy descriptions and analyses. Resat Nuri Guntekin and Peyami Safa were two other novelists who won fame before the 1940 generation.
Abdulhak Sinasi Hisar, Memduh §evket Esandal and Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar wrote most of their works after 1930.
The poetry of the period 1920-1940 had the same characteristics as the novels and stories of the same period, as they were the products of a common movement and the same social conditions. The first poets of the Republic used simple language and the syllabic metre. The advocates of the syllabic metre who won fame during the Truce Years were Orhan Seyfi Orhon, Yusuf Ziya Ortac, Faruk Natiz Camlibel and Kemalettin Kamu, all poets who stressed the theme of Anatolia and the ordinary person in their poems.
Enis Behic Koryurek wrote free flowing poems in syllabic metre inspiring strong historical and national feelings. Yahya Kemal Beyath on the other hand was a writer noted both for his poetry and his prose. Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar wrote intensely profound poems full of hidden meaning, adapting Paul Valery's poetic notions to the Turkish language. Ahmet Kutsi Tecer was inspired in his work by folk sources. Necip Fazil Kisakurek expressed the mystic tendencies of the Anatolian people in his poems and plays, using the Turkish language skilfully in an orginal and modern style reflecting his colourful character. Nazim Hikmet Ran, who went to Russia when he was young and returned with Marxist-materialist convictions, wrote - revolutionary poems using the esthetic qualities of Turkish in a new way which bore the influence of Mayakovsky. These poems were the beginning of a socialist trend which became common in Turkish literature in the 1960's. By contrast, Ahmet Muhip Drana's poems reflected esthetic considerations only. Arif Nihat Asya was original in the richness of spirit and style of his poems.
Omer Seyfettin, the founder and most successful representative of the short story tradition in Turkish literature, became the most widely-read author in the country when the 144th edition of his books was published. The writings of Sait Faik Abasiyanik and Sabahattin Ali started two widely different trends. Sait Faik Abasiyanik picked on happenings in Istanbul with intense poetical feeling based on his own experiences. Sabahattin Ali, on the other hand, had a materialistic philosophy and specialized in objective description of simple events. With these two writers, daily life and events, opinions and exectations began to be reflected in literature, a trend that was to intensify in the 1960s. Though Turkey did not enter the Second World War, she nevertheless experienced great political, social and cultural changes during the years 1940-1945. This war launched on the ideological plane against Nazism and Fascism, popularized western democracy and socialist trends in Turkey as elsewhere. In this new balance of power, Turkey chose western civilization and western democracy, a direction she had been oriented to since the Tanzimat. With democratic freedom, socialist and Marxist ideas also entered the country.
Orhan Veli Kanik published his poems in a book entitled "Garip" in 1941, and two others who shared his style, Melih Cevdet Anday and Oktay Rifat, created a new poetic movement called "Garipgiler", based on the elimination of such formal restrictions as metre, rhyme and analogy hitherto considered to be essential in poetry. They wanted poetry to become a simple expression of feeling. Orhan Veli's successful poems in free verse greatly influenced those who came... after him. Cahit Sitki Taranci achieved the same simplicity through the use of metre and rhyme. Free verse spread rapidly. Asaf Halet Celebi, Fazi! Husnu Daglarca and Behget Necatigil were some of the successful representatives of this style. After 1950, many Turkish writers turned to the "social realism" movement .Since
then the existentialism and surrealism of the west has changed the philosophy of artists, and the composition and style of their work. In the last four decades, Turkish literature has become increasingly varied; new trends from the west, social philosophy, national and religious approaches and the range of political preferences available in a multi-party system have brought diversification. More often than not, literature is used as a tool in seeking new ways of expression.
Due to the increase in the number of woman writers, especially after the 1960s, the feminist movement has taken its place in Turkish literature alongside others. The most well-known and widely-read story writers and novelists of the 1950-1990 period can be listed as follows: Halide Nusret Zorlutuna, Nihal Atsiz, Safiye Erol, Tank Dursun K., Atila ilhan, Yasar Kemal, Tank Bugra, Aziz Nesin, Mustafa Necati Sepetgioglu, Firuzan, Adalet Agaoglu, Sevgi Soysal, Tomris Uyar, Emine Ismsu, Seving Cokum, Selim ileri, Cevat §akir (the Halikarnas Fisherman), Bekir BOyukarkm, Necati Cumali, Haldun Taner, Mustafa Kutlu, Muhtar Tevfikoglu, Bahaettin Ozkisi, Durah Yilmaz, Rasim Ozdeno'ren and §evket Bulut.
Poets whostand out in this period are: Behcet Kemal Caglar, Necati Cumali, Urnit Ya§ar Oguzcan, Bekir Sitki Erdogan, Atila ilhan, Yavuz Bulent Bakiler, Mehmet Cmarli, Mustafa Necati Karaer. Munis Faik Ozansoy, Niyazi Yildinm Gencosmanoglu, ilhan Geger, Bedri Rahmi Eyuboglu, Turgut Uyar; Sezai Karakog and Bahaettin Karakoc.
The Education System
When we take in hand the institutions that have sustained the vital functions of the Turks living in Turkey, we must bear in mind that, from the year 2000 B.C.when they first appeared on the pages of history, they have been a part of three separate civilizations.
During the period when they led a nomadic life in Central Asia, they were part of the institutions that harmonized with their way of life. Upon accepting the Islamic faith, as of the ninth century, they formed a part of the Islamic community. And after their expedition to Anatolia in the 11th century, they fully adopted a settled way of life. This admixture of Islamic and Turkish elements produced a civilization and culture all of its own which was called the "Ottoman Composition". During the last years of the Ottoman Empire, a transitory and preparatory period was experienced in the westernization process, based on the need to adjust to western civilisation.
After the establishment of the Turkish Republic on October 29, 1923, Turkey entered the chamber of western civilization and culture, and the gradually-adopted institutions and elements from the west merged with those of Turkey to form the "Republican Composition".
The Turks who made their presence felt through the course of three great civilizations and cultures, created many masterpieces, achieved much in economics and public policies and led a stable and harmonious social life. In view of the developments and successes of each period, they re-shaped their educational system accordingly.
During the period of their lives in Central Asia, the most characteristic aspects of their behaviour, as necessitated by the mounted, nomadic way of life they led, were being cautious and alert against possible attacks from the borders by enemy tribes, maintaining unity and solidarity, following a disciplined and obedient life-style, remaining undeterred in the face of natural catastrophes, attacks by wild animals and endless wars, being stout-hearted and strong enough to wield a spear, being expert riders and having a sense of responsibility and in times of strife the wisdom to gather around the most capable leader in the interests of solving the problems at hand. These exemplary characteristics played a major role in the establishment and organization of the Seljuks, the Anatolian Principalities (Beyliks), the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey.
At first, education was not in possesion of a system of institutions in the true sense of the word. Knowledge was gained by seeing, listening and experimenting. This education was directed towards training warriors to be both obedient and brave, capable of withstanding hardships, and also towards making them agreeable as persons.
Following the adoption of Islam, coupled with the changes in the political boundaries of the Turks and their transition to a settled civilization and new way of life, educational institutions more attuned to the times were formed and the system developed. Educational needs during the times of the Seljuks and the Ottomans were met by theological schools, dervish lodges, guilds and fraternities. The theological schools in time developed and diversified. These schools, which initially taught only theology, in time extended their teachings to philosophy, mathematics, physics, logic and history.
During the Ottoman period the Enderun School (the equivalent of a university) was established for the purpose of training personnel for the palace, which was extremely influential in the administrative affairs of the state. In parallel to the developments in the West, as of the 18th century, schools of engineering, military science, administrative sciences, medicine, law, veterinary
sciences and fine arts were opened. Furthermore, high schools were opened to bring students to a level where they could follow the studies in the university.
In accordance with the Statute Book of Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Mehmet the Conqueror), the Grand Mufti was the supreme anthority over all educational matters. The theological schools and professorships established in various parts of the country were administered by local muftis. In 1826 all foundation schools were annexed by Sultan Mahmut II to the Ministry of Religious Foundations, which was a state authority, and all education came to be administered by the state. In 1857, with the establishment of the General Ministry of Education, educational affairs were governed by one minister. Following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, as in other fields, reforms were also undertaken in education. Under the "Law for the Unification of Education", which was ratified in 1924, all schools were annexed to the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education was charged with the task of implementing a contemporary mode of education and training for Turkish citizens by opening primary and secondary schools and other institutes and arranging courses within the framework of the educational policy decided upon. The Ministry also meets the requirements of these institutions by way of teachers and administrators, and draws up the respective rules, regulations and programmes. It also arranges educational programmes for children of school age who are needy or require special treatment.
Aside from all these functions, it issues publications in both Turkish and foreign languages to promote training and education foundations with a view towards enriching and developing Turkish culture. It carries out research, arranges international contacts in the field of training and education, maintains liason with institutions related to educational affairs, coordinates the curricula of professional secondary schools with the affiliated ministries, opens widespread courses to train those who for one reason or another have neglected their education, provides apprenticeship training and opens public libraries and undertakes their operation and administration.
The goal of the Turkish national educational system could be summarized as one where all individuals of the state are gathered together as one inseparable whole, united in national consciousness and principles, trained to think along scientific lines with intellectually broadened views on world affairs and to be productive, happy individuals who through their skills contribute to the prosperity of society and are instrumental in making the Turkish nation a creative and distinguished member of the modern world.
Preschool Training
This encompasses training of those children who have not as yet reached the compulsory school age.
Pre-school education is provided especially in areas which are densely populated and where both father and mother normally work, and it is widespread enough to allow children of families with low socio-economic and cultural standards to attend. In recent years, there have been developments in kindergartens, and their numbers have increased.
During the 1989-1990 school year, 110,534 children attended 3,601 pre-school training centres staffed by 6,734 teachers.
Primary Education
This encompasses compulsory training and education for all boys and girls within the 6-14 age group. Primary education in state schools is free of charge.
The aims and duties of primary education:
- Each Turkish child should be imbued with the concept of national morals, and brought up to be a useful
citizen with all the required attributes of behaviour and habits.
- Each Turkish child should be educated and the grounds prepared for furthering his/her education in line
with his/her interests, talents and skills.
Primary Schools
These are national educational institutions which have been opened by the State or with the permission of the State to train and educate boys and girls through the compulsory educational period. The state-operated schools are controlled and administered by the state.
During the 1989-1990 school year, the number of primary schools was 51,169. The number of students was 7,191,027 and that of teachers 224,382.
Middle Schools
These encompass a three-year educational period after primary school. These schools can be opened independently and can also be included within the framework of secondary educational institutions.
During 1989-1990 the number of secondary schools totalled 5,357, the number of students was 2,280,606 and teachers numbered 47,239.
Primary Education
These encompass five years of primary schooling and three years of secondary schooling. A certificate is given upon graduation from the primary school section and another upon graduation from the middle school level.
During 1989-1990, the number of schools was 927, the number of students 575,000 and the number of teachers 21,080.
General Secondary Education This is provided in educational institutions that prepare students in the 15-17 age group for higher education, train them in their duties as citizens and educate them in general culture.
These institutions of general secondary education can be categorised into general lycees, Anatolian lycees, science lycees, teachers lycees and evening lycees, each with its own curriculum.
General Lycees
The primary goal of the lycees is to bring students from secondary schools to a higher knowledge of general culture, to create in them an awareness of personal and communal problems, to bring them up as persons who will contribute to the country's economic, communal and cultural development and to prepare them for higher education.
During 1989-1990, the number of | general lycees was 1,700, the number of students 750,091 and the number
of teachers 61,277. The number of students in the middle schools annexed to these lycees was 735,204.
АШап Lycees
These have been established for the pyipose of teaching their students at leaslone foreign language, which they can then utilize either in Turkey or abroadtofurther their education in the best possible manner. These lycees also instill an awareness of positive cultureanrj contemporary concepts. The educational period covers 7 years,which includes a one-year preparatory course. Aside from lessons in foreign languages, the generailycee curriculum is strictly adhered to. Mathematics and science are taught in foreign languages.
During 1989-1990 the number of Anatolian lycees was 76, the number of students 21,377 and the number of teactes 3,054.
Science Lycees
Science-oriented lycees have been opened to provide training and educaton for gifted students in the field olmathematics and science (in accordance with the aims and basic principtes of national education), to meettfieneed of the country for scientists, to guide students towards an interest in research and new inventions and to initiate laboratory workinthe interests of having our students interested in all that is new in mathematics and science. The numberof science-oriented schools openduring 1989-1990 was 13, the numberof students 2,527 and the numberofteachers 325.
reader Training Lycees
These lycees provide the basic knowledge future teachers need. The educational programme is either 3 or 6 years.
Thecurriculum of these schools corresponds exactly to those of lycees. In addition to this, in 1983, programmes were established with the
aims of motivating teachers and imbuing them withafeeiing of closeness for their work and the will to branch out. In 1983-84, new programmes have been implemented with a view towards forming a base for higher institutionsol learning to train teachers.
In 1989-1990, the number of teacher training lycees was 28, the number of students7,928 and the number of teachers955.
Evening Lycees
These are educational institutions which have been opened for those who because of their work cannot pursue their educational courses during the dayandwhoare past school age.
During 1989-1990, the number of evening lycees was 10, the numberof students 3,849 andthe number of teachers 131.
Professional Technical Educational institutions
Male Technical Educational Institutions
Anatolian Technical Lycees
These are educational institutions which are entered on completion of middle school education.
The educational period is five years inclusive of one preparatory year. A minimum of one foreign language is taught, together with general science and a general knowledge course on a lycee level. Furthermore, an industrial professional schooling is given, to prepare students both for institutions of higher learning and for life. The programmes in these schools include training in computers, electricity, electronics, journalism, construction, mechanics, remote control, electronics in medicine, aircraft motors and architecture.
Technical Lycees
These are educational institutions offering a four-year course after middle school which includes a lycee level science branch together with an industrial professional course to prepare students for institutions of higher learning and for life.
The programmes in these schools include lessons on infrastructure, computers, educational equipment, electricity, electronics, industrial electronics, moulds, chemistry, technical drawing, microtechnical motors, medical electronics, maintenance of aircraft motors, superstructure and architectural drawing.
The Anatolian Maritime Professional Lycees
These lycees have a four-year course after middle school, inclusive of a one-year preparatory course. The programmes here implemented include instruction in a foreign language, which is a necessity in the maritime field, the required professional training for the field of work in question and preparation for institutions of higher learning. Ship electronics, communications, ship engines and deck programmes are taught.
Industrial Professional Lycees
Three-year courses are taught in these lycees, after middle school.
The programmes include professional training in various fields of industry to prepare students for both institutions of higher learning and various industrial fields.
Girls Technical Educational Institutions
Educational possibilities extended by the Girls Technical Education General Directorate to women and girls are widespread throughout the country.
Girls' Trade Lycees
These schools are attended by graduates of girls' trade middle schools and general middle schools. They offer a three-year educational course. Aside from general knowledge lessons, which are taught in common with all secondary schools, professional training is also given to prepare students to work as professional personnel on a medium level in their chosen fields. These schools also prepare students for higher institutions of learning. During 1989-1990 the number of girls'trade lycees was 328 and the number of students 43,816.
Grits' Technical Lycees
These are educational institutions opened on the basis of need for technical personnel in the fields of work and services. They are attended by students who have graduated from basic education girls handicraft and general middle schools. The educational period spans a course of 4 years. The first classes are on a par with those of girls' professional trade schools. At the end of the year, those who have achieved a certain standard can continue their studies in the technical lycees, if they so choose. During 1989-1990 the number of girls' technical lycees was 3 and the number of students 146.
Anatolian Professional Lycees for Girls
These are schools with a four-year educational programme, inclusive of a first year preparatory course, where some of the lessons are given in a foreign language. They are attended by graduates of basic education, girls handicraft and general middle schools,. The aim of these educational
institutions, where only those passing the entrance examinations are accepted, is to meet the demand in the industrial field for medium-echelon professional personnel speaking a foreign language.
During 1989-1990, the number of Anatolian professional lycees for girls was \2 and the number of students, 1,817.
Anatolian Technical Lycees For Girls
These schools have a five-year educational period inclusive of a one-year preparatory course. Lessons are given in a foreign language, while general knowledge lessons are science-oriented. Students are graduates of basic education, girls handicraft and general middle schools. During 1989-1990, the number of schools was one and the number of students 60.
Girls Handicraft Middle Schools
These offer a three-year educational course after primary schooling. They may be independent or affiliated to professional lycees. Aside from subjects related to general knowledge, professional training is given as well.
During 1989-1990, the number of girls handicraft middle schools was 266 and the number of students 33,826.
Girls Technical implementation Kindergarten
These are institutions for pre-school children in the 4-5 age group, here laboratory work to incite interest and fill their requirements is carried out. These are affiliated to girls' technical schools. During 1988-1989 the number of schools was 319 and the number of students 3160.
Girls Practical Handicraft Schools
These are either day or night schools where courses of 122 types, levels and durations are given to
young girls and women. Aims include proficiency in family and home management, reading and writing, developing proficiency in a given field of work and completing one's general education.
During 1988-1989 the number of schools was 478. These were attended by 91,046 persons.
Technical institutes for Girls These are educational institutions with a two-year course, They are operated by revolving capital. In these institutions, Turkish handicrafts and clothing are studied and modernized with a view towards sales possibilities and marketing both- abroad and within the country. Special orders are accepted and work is directed towards mass production. During 1989-1990 there were 10 institutes attended by 1,873 students.
Trade and Tourism Educational Institutions
Trade Lycees
These schools offer education in the field of business administration, accounting, finance, cooperative work, marketing, tourism, banking and secretarial skills to meet the demand in public and private enterprises
Professional schools with a three-year syllabus, they prepare stundents for both institutions of higher learning and the busines world.
During 1989-1990, the number of schools was 270, with 138,339 students. The number of teachers was 6,834. The middle schools affiliated to these lycees numbered 59, with 19,115 students.
Evening Courses Lycees These are four-year professional schools attended by those who after graduating from middle schools have been forced to work during the day. Here they are given the opportunity to improve their skills in the work they are engaged in and also to gain new skills in the professional field. During 1989-1990, the number of schools was 5 and the number of students 2,354.
Anatolian Trade Lycees
The educational programme here comprises 4 years inclusive of a one-year preparatory course after graduation from middle schools.
Students here are given the necessary education to meet the demands of the fields of data processing and foreign trade, inclusive of a foreign language.
During 1989-1990, the number of schools was 23 and the number of students 1,881.
Hotel Management and Tourism Lycees
These are vocational schools with a three-year educational programme established with the aim of meeting the requirements of the tourism sector in the way of trained and skilled personnel.
Anatolian Vocational Schools in Hotel Management and Tourism
These vocational schools have a four-year course inclusive of a preparatory year and are designed to meet the need of the sector for trained personnel speaking a foreign language.
Secretarial Lycees
The educational period in these schools is 3 years, and the syllabus directed towards meeting the requirements of the business world in respect of knowledgeable and skilled trained personnel.
Anatolian Secretarial Vocational Lycees
These are vocational schools offering a 4-year programme designed with a view to meeting the requirements of various public and private enterprises in the way of skilled personnel speaking a foreign language.
Anatolian Culinary Vocational Lycees
These provide 7-year post-primary education and are aimed at providing skilled personnel, speaking a foreign language, to be employed in Turkish and foreign kitchens.
Religious Education
Islamic Theological Lycees
These train candidate personnel to be charged with religious services, teaching in Koran classes, preaching and the imamate. The education comprises 4 years of courses for middle school graduates, During 1989-1990, the number of middle schools was 382, with 189,447 students, and the number of lycees was 365 with 92,687 students.
Anatolian Islamic Theological Lycees
The educational period inclusive of a year's preparatory courses is 3 years for the middle school and 4 years for the lycee section. In addition to the general lycee programme foreign language lessons are also given.
During 1989-1990 the number of schools was 1, attended by 448 students.
These schools were established for the purpose of training those mentally or physically handicapped or those of high intelligence to enable them to become useful members of the community and attain a profession. Education is free in these schools, which provide day classes and board and lodgings.
Schools for the Blind
These schools offer educational opportunities to those children whose vision is lower than 1/10 for both eyes,
and who are termed "blind", and those whose vision for both eyes is "impaired" (between 1/10 and 1/30).
The educational period for primary schools is 6 years. Some of these institutions also have a middle school section. There are also independent secondary schools.
Schools for the Deaf
These schools offer educational opportunities to those children who notwithstanding all measures taken have a loss of hearing of more than 70 decibels and are classified as very deaf and for those children whose loss of hearing is between 25-70 decibels and who are classified as deaf. The educational period in the primary school section is 6 years. Some of these have a middle school section and a kindergarten.
School for the Orthopedically Handicapped
This school offers educational opportunities to those children who notwithstanding all measures taken are not able to pursue a normal course of education because of the deformed state of their skeletons, muscles, joints and nervous system. The school is in Ankara and consists of a primary school, a handicrafts middle school and a vocational lycee.
4
School for Retarded Children
This school is for children with an I.Q. that is between 45 and 75.
Special Training Classes
These are classes set aside in normal primary schools for the education of the deaf, blind and retarded.
Nonformal Education
This nonformal education system covers training for those who have never had any formal education, or are at a certain level or have dropped out of this level. The training offers them educational opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills in relation to their interests, desires and abilities.
The apprenticeship training which forms a part of. nonformal education is prepared in accordance with the apprenticeship standards as agreed upon by authorized specialists and is in principle based on on-the-spot training so as to develop knowledge, skills and proficiency on the job
Public Training Centres
These are institutions which provide nonformal training services to persons of all ages of either sex. These include reading and writing courses, professional, social and cultural courses and practical social cultural activities.
Apprenticeship Training Centres
These are centres where training in accordance with the Apprenticeship and Vocational Training Law is given at candidate apprentice, apprentice, assistant master and master levels.
Nonformal Training Institute This has been established for the purpose of carrying out research in the field of nonformal training and in order to prepare the necessary curricula and projects.
Vocational and Technical Correspondence School
This institution offers training in the professional field via correspondence courses.
Private Educational institutions
These are international private educational institutions established by Turkish nationals in accordance with the regulations covering private education. They include kindergartens, primary schools, secondary schools, various part-time centres, students' study-training centres and institutions offering training and study for foreign students The numbers of these educational institutions as of 1988 were as follows: 458 private Turkish schools, 89 minority schools, 35 foreign private schools, 719 private course-giving institutions, 854 special part-time centres and 13 students' study and training centres. The number of students attending the full-time schools was 140,037, and the number in the other institutions 356,827. The total number of teachers was 19,376, of which 7,723 taught in the full-time schools and 11,653 in the other educational institutions
Higher Education
All universities and schools of higher learning are affiliated to the Higher Education Council established under Law No. 2547 of November 6, 1981. The Council is an autonomous, public juridical body with the authority and responsibility to administer the activities of all institutions of higher learning. It consists of the Higher Supervisory Board, Student Selection and Placement Centre and other sections related to planning, research, development, evaluation, budgets, investment and coordination. The aim of the organization is to train manpower to meet the needs of the nation and country based on contemporary education principles, to carry out scientific research and to provide counsellor services.
As of 1989, there were 29 universities with 211 faculties and 187 higher schools all attached to the
Higher Education Council.
The list of universities in Turkey runs as follows:
Adana-Cukurova Univesity
Ankara-Ankara University, Bil-kent University, Gazi University, Hacettepe University, Middle East Technical University
Antalya-Mediterranean University Bursa-Uludag University Diyarbakir-Dicle University Edirne -Thrace University Elazig - Firat University Erzurum -Ataturk University Eski§ehir-Anadolu University Gaziantep-Gaziantep University
Istanbul - Bosphorus University, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul University, Marmara University, Mimar Sinan University,Yildiz University.
Izmir-September 9th University, Aegean University
Kayseri-Erciyes University Konya-Seljuk Unversity Malatya-lnonu University Samsun-May 19th University Sivas-Republic University Trabzon-Black Sea University Van-100th Year University
Stundents are admitted to universities through a two-phase examination held once a year by the Centre for Student Selection and Placement attached to the Higher Education Council. During 1988-1989 the number of students was 551,718. 105,445 students availed themselves of the 100 dormitories situated in various parts of the country. Additionally, higher education credits were extended to 142,660 students.A separate examination is held once a year by the Centre for Student Selection and Placement for foreign students wishing to enter higher
education in Turkey. As the examination papers are in both Turkish and English, a knowledge of Turkish is not a prerequisite to enter these examinations. For those who have been successful in these examinations but whose knowledge of Turkish is insufficient, after their registration with the universities, they are considered on leave for a period of one year to gain proficiency in the Turkish language. Turkish language courses for foreigners are given by the Turkish Teaching Centre (TOMER) of Ankara University. There are also Turkish language courses in the Istanbul and Izmir universities. The Middle East Technical and Bil-kent universities in Ankara implement a different educational system. All tuition is in the English language. For those students whose knowledge of the language is insufficient, there is a one-year preparatory course. Subjects taught are civil, mechanical, chemical, industrial, electrical and electronic engineering, management, economics, public administration, pyschology, sociology, history, administrative and social sciences, mathematics, chemistry, physics, philology and fine arts. Aside from these two universities there are also other faculties and higher schools where tuition is in the English language.
Scientific research in Turkey is primarily carried out by universities. However, there are other autonomous research institutions and organizations as well: the Turkish Scientific and Technical Research Institute (Tubitak) the Turkish Atomic Energy Council (TAEK) and the Ataturk High Institution of Culture, Language and History, for example. While Turkey's tendency towards contemporary science and technology had its start in the Republican era, the foundation dates of certain research institutions in the country go back to the 19th century. Following the proclamation of the Republic, research institutes and stations were rapidly established with a view to increasing agricultural yields and adding impetus to development. Decisions influencing development were made and implemented by the State and consequently the pioneering work relevant to scientific and technological research was also undertaken by the State.
In the 1980s, research and development studies in public institutions indirectly concerned with scientific and technological matters were undertaken by general directorate-affiliated units. In some organizations research councils were established under the presidency of the respective ministry to plan and manage the research and development work, in those organizations without any research sections, departments charged with quality control constitute the physical environment for research and development work.
In recent years, the Turkish private sector has realized the significance of research, and research and development units have now been established in many private sector enterprises.
To ensure coordination and communication among research organizations, inclusive of universities, a Science and Technology Supreme Council attached to the Prime Ministry was established on October 4,1983.
All departments and branches in universities are charged with research and 100 research institutes have been established in the fields of health, nuclear sciences, solar energy marine sciences, ecology, medicine, bio-medicine, engineering, accident surveying and prevention, fine arts, television and cinema. Furthermore, a Higher Education Council research fund regulation was issued on May 20, 1984 advocating support for project based research including that made at postgraduate level.
Universities, which are the most qualified sources in the field of scientific research, undertake their work with assistance from the general budget, TUBITAK, the public and private sectors, university funds and support from abroad. Within the framework of 34 existing agreements, Turkish universities, which also have close to 100 agreements with foreign universities, presently undertake various scientific research studies on a project basis with NATO, WHO, the Atomic Energy Organization, UNESCO and other international organizations.
A survey made between 1970 and 1972 by the State Planning Organization on research in universities has shown that in the 9 universities then in existence, 2,387 research studies were undertaken in 376 branches of science. The report of Ankara University on "Turkish Universities and University Research" states that 758 scientists were engaged in 4,187 research studies between 1971 and 1981.
The Turkish Scientific and Technical Research Institute (Tubitak) was established on July 17, 1963 to develop, support and organize basic and applied research. The institute offers information services, initiates and coordinates scientific work and extends training facilities based on research. It provides grants for capable students thereby extending financial support for the human element in scientific development.
The Turkish Atomic Energy
Organization is charged with the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes in accordance with the development plan for the benefit of the country, the determination and recommendation of fundamental principles and policies and the initiation of scientific, technical and administrative studies, together with the corresponding arrangement, support and coordination work. The Ataturk High Institution of Culture, Language and History was established in 1983 for the purpose of directing interested specialized personnel towards research in the fields of culture, language and history. The institution is composed of the Ataturk Centre of Research, the Turkish Language Society, the Turkish Historical Society and the Ataturk Cultural Centre.it aims at scientific research into and promotion of Ataturk's concepts, principles and reforms and Turkish culture, history and language. It also issues publications covering these topics.
Life Style
Family Life
Despite the rapid changes in the last thirty years, "traditional" social relations have changed little in the rural regions. Families, patriarchal and large, keep their traditional structures. All the individuals are dependent upon the family and under the absolute sovereignty of the father. In the rural areas, the settlement order allows relatives to live close to each other.
In the cities, one can find a different, more organised family type.
Living standards in the cities reduced the size of the family. The "nuclear family", consisting of father, mother and children only, is common in the cities. The hierarchy is replaced by equal relations within the family. Production occurs outside the family which gives every individual the opportunity to gain his or her economic freedom, become independent and differ from the others. This differentiation has ended the mandatory unity of the family and led new generations to leave the family and form their own families.
Marriage and divorce
It is legally forbidden to marry before the age of 15 for women and 17 for men in Turkey. Early marriages are more frequent in the rural areas than the cities. In the big cties, the problems of education, military service, acquiring a profession and so on delay marriages. In the rural areas, marriages are generally in line with the wishes or approval of the families, whereas in the urban areas the couple themselves determine their marriage.
After the proclamation of the Re public and under the leadership of Ataturk, women were equipped with contemporary social rights and beca me equal in status to men.lt was the swift culmination of a process which had been started under the Ottoman Empire, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century after the Tan-zimat movement.
In 1847, a Sultan's firman was issu ed prohibiting slavery and the practice of owning concubines. In 1857, a law was enacted introducing equality bet ween men and women as regards rights of inheritance
The first midwifery school was inau gurated in 1842. Then, junior high schools for girls were set up in 1858. In 1863, the first trade schools and in 1870 the first teacher training colleges for girls came into being. These prog ressive measures in the education sector continued until the opening of the first institute of higher learning (university for girls) in 1910.
During the same period, women set up various organisations such as "Te-ai-i Nisvan," "Mudafaai Hukuku Nisvan" and "Ash Kadinlar" (Contemporary Wo men). In the Balkan War, the women's arm of the Red Cross provided trai ning to Turkish women.
In 1917, a decree was issued which gave a legal framework to marital sta tus. For the first time, women were granted the right to begin divorce pro ceedings, and the consent of wives was accepted as a precondition for further marriages of men.
With the emergence of the Repub lic, action was taken to bring society to the level of contemporary civilized societies by uprooting the traditional social structure of the Empire which had survived for centuries.
Ataturk abolished the old legal system based on religion, which was a major barrier to attempts at moderni zation, and introduced legal measures that would facilitate economic and so cial development.
The law on the unification of the education system of 1924, the Turkish
A woman in politics: Jmren Aykut, Labour and Social Security Minister
civil code of 1926 and the law on ge neral apearance and dress put into ef fect in 1926 are the legislative actions of the early years of the Republic which can be qualified as major steps in relation to women's rights. With the secularization of the education system, women gained equal rights with men in the field of education.
Furthermore, women no longer had to wear the purdah and long overgar ment required by old religious beliefs. Most important of all, legal provisions superceded religious dogmas in de termining the status of women in soci ety. Consequently, women and men became equal under law on matters concerning marriage, divorce, guardi anship and inheritance. As a result of these fundamental legal changes, the institution of polygamy became a thing of the past.
In 1930, women were given the right to elect and to be elected to the assemblies of the municipalities. The same rights were granted to women in 1934 in the national assembly electi ons.
Women's Rights as Foreseen in the Turkish Civil Code
According to the current civil code, both parties (women and men) have equal rights to appeal for divorce. In case of divorce, guardianship of the children may be given to either mother or father at the discretion of the judge.
In case of the death of one of the parties, the guardianship is left to the surviving side. As regards inheritance rights, there is complete equality bet ween men and women.
An unmarried woman in Turkey en joys complete freedom to decide the place and type of occupation she wis hes to be engaged in. However, in this respect there are certain restrictions for married women, who may only take up an occupation for the purpose of moral and material betterment with the permission of the husband. The wife can appeal to court for permission to work if her husband misuses his right.
The Present Status of Women's Rights Equality before the law, which is one of the essential principles of the Turkish Constitution, also applies to the sexes. As an outcome of this prin ciple, there has been no discriminati on between sexes in terms of salaries and social benefits in the public sec tor.
Turkey