Translation features of neologisms in the modern vocabulary
Content
Introduction………………………………………………………………………….5
1 Neologisms in modern English……………………………………………………8
1.1 The definition of concept and term «neologism»………………………………..8
1.2 Methods of forming neologisms…………………………………………………20
1.3 Translation of neologisms……………………………………………………… 25
1.4 Ethnic and cultural specificity of learning a new vocabulary of the English language……………………………………………………………………………..32
2 Translation features of neologisms in the modern vocabulary……………………40
2.1 Means of translation of modern neologisms…………………………………….40
2.2 Translating difficulties of neologisms in the modern vocabulary………………44
2.3 Translation features of neologisms in modern texts…………………………….46
2.3.1 Lexical transformation…………………………………………………………46
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...55
List of references…………………………………………………………………….57
Applications
Introduction
This research is devoted to the study of the neologisms of modern English language as well as their translation in the modern vocabulary in the anthropocentric paradigm of the study, the essence of which consists in shifting the interests of the researcher to the objects of knowledge on the subject.
The increased interest to the neology problem is due to the important role of neologisms as a mirror of language development, which reflects the language adaptation to the changing under the influence of external factors, the conditions of its operation.
The starting point of lexical innovation is the practice, because cultural and historical, socio-political conditions of life and work of a speech community affect to lexical and nominative activities.
Given the fact that the most of the nominative incentives are provided by social, political, scientific and technical, cultural spheres of human activity, at the present stage of development of the science of language is becoming increasingly evident need for a comprehensive study of the linguistic and socio-cultural processes in their functional interaction. The expediency of such approach is even more apparent because of the globalization of culture, which is understood as the acceleration of the integration of nations into the global system, which is accompanied by a global informatization of the world community.
The relevance of this research is, on the one hand, the need to learn new vocabulary as a means to reflect the changes taking place in contemporary lingvoculture influenced by such factors as socially significant computerization, informatization, globalization, etc.
In transitional periods of social and economic development the issue of language changes is one of the central in scientific research, as objectively measures the dynamics of social and industrial transformations. On the other hand, during the change of linguistic paradigms grows interest of linguists to study cognitive structures, objected with linguistic forms. In connection with the foregoing, in the world, the role of translation increases.
A significant number of errors made by interpreters in the transmission of modern vocabulary, suggests that the problem is quite acute, which is paid a lot of attention in linguistic researches. These problems are examined differently, are recommended various techniques and methods of translation, there are different opinions as unambiguous, standard solutions are not and can not be.
Depending on the situation is required a different approach, a different strategy of translation, different translation solutions.
The object of this research is based on English neologisms in the modern vocabulary
The subject of the research are neologisms in modern English and their translation.
The purpose of the study is theoretical and practical justification of the issue of neologisms in modern English and their translation
To achieve this objective there is a set of tasks:
define the concept and the term «neologism»;
consider the definitions of a neologism;
consider the characteristics of neologisms translation;
consider the characteristics of a modern vocabulary translation;
Scientific novelty of the research is determined by the tasks, the orientation of research on the disclosure of the scientific potential methodological reasons, the search and processing of information, taking into account not only linguistic but also cultural factors that form the content of neological fields in the English language, as well as the problems of translation of modern vocabulary.
The theoretical significance of this research is to further develop the neology theory as one of the branches of the theory of nomination, the allocation of the total for the language and culture of the methodological platform on the basis of which to develop methods for the study of the language of the lexical units, acting in feature playable characters of the 'language' culture and participating in broadcast mentality of the people who are native speakers, as well as the problems of their translation.
The practical value of the work is determined by the fact that the conclusions of the study, as well as illustrative material can be used in the formation of linguistic-cultural competence of English language learners, as apart from the social and cultural environment of language learning there are objective difficulties in learning new vocabulary.
The materials of this work can also be used to write textbooks in cross-cultural problems, in the practice of creating reference books of a new American vocabulary, in lecture courses of general linguistics, lexicology of modern English language, special courses on English neology, economic vocabulary of modern English in different educational institutions ( universities, centers of language training, courses, etc.).
The material of the research are economic texts of the English periodical newspapers "The Daily Express", "The Daily Mail", "The Daily Mirror", "The Daily Telegraph", "The Financial Times", "The Guardian", "The Independent" , "The Independent on Sunday", "The Sun", "The Sunday Telegraph", "The Sunday Times", "The Times"; magazine "The Economist" and "The Observer".
The theoretical basis for this study are the scientific developments in the field of neology and neografy (SI Alatortseva, JK Voloshin A. Ivanov, NC Kotelova, VI Zabotkina, E. Rosen, E. V. Senko, G. Stepanov, EV Yumshanova, J. Algeo, J. Ayto, R. Barnhart, G. Cannon, G. Forgue, S. Rot, D. Odmark, A. Rey, G. Guilbert), in cognitive linguistics (NF Alefirenko, ND Arutyunov, A. Grandma, EL Boyar, A. Wierzbicka, VG Gak, VZ Demyankov, ES Kubrjakova, LA Lipilina, VA Maslov, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson) and in linguistics (VI Karasik, DS Likhachev, VA Maslov, Yu Stepanov, B . N. Telia), in translation Kommissarov V., AN Garbovsky etc.
Given the specificity of the studying linguistic phenomena, the solution of tasks was carried out by a complex of methods:
1) descriptive (techniques of observation, generalization, the typology of the analyzed material, its quantitative representation);
2) analysis of dictionary definitions based on component analysis methods and elements of content analysis, based on the identification of socio-cultural markers in the content of dictionary definitions of neologisms;
3) modeling method using a frame-based methods and conceptual analysis;
4) word-formation analysis.
1 Neologisms in modern English
1.1 The definition of concept and term «neologism»
Neologism (neo + Greek. Logos word) - a new word, linguistic innovation (figure of speech), the grammatical feature, which appears in the language. [1;7]
A large number of new lexical units appeared in connection with the development of computer technology. Such neologisms are divided into several semantic groups:
1) lexical units, referring to types of computers and their structure, such as: personal computer (PC) - “персональный компьютер", supercomputer-“суперкомпьютер”, multi-user-“компьютер для нескольких человек”, neurocomputer-“электронный аналог человеческого мозга", hardware-“части компьютера”, software-“программа компьютера”, monitor-“экран компьютера”,megabyte of computer memory-“мегабайт памяти компьютера", data-“текст программы, вводимой в компьютер", bogusware-“программа компьютера, составленная для разрушения программ компьютеров", vapourware-“опытные образцы ЭВМ, для выставок, но не для производства”, etc.
2) lexical units, referring to types of computer languages, such as: BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) - “Бейсик", Fortran (Formula Translation) - “Фортран” and others;
3) lexical units, denoting concepts associated with work on the computers, for example: liveware - “специалисты, работающие на компьютерах", computerman - “специалист по ЭВМ", computerize - “составлять программу ЭВМ или оборудовать компьютерной техникой", “компьютеризовать”, computerization - “компьютеризация”, to trouble-shoot - “исправить, починить компьютер”, to blitz out - “уничтожить часть данных в памяти компьютера” etc.
In English-speaking countries, computerization is distributed in the various spheres of life, including mode of life. A large number of neologisms associated with the use of computers in everyday life, is formed by the reduced form of tele-, eg: telepost - “место в доме, где находится компьютер”, telework, to telecommute - “работать на дому, имея компьютерную связь с производством”, telebanking - “финансовая служба, позволяющая клиенту осуществлять банковские операции через телевизор или домашний компьютер”, telemarketing - “практика продажи по телефону", teleshopping - “заказ покупки по телефону” (in the last two cases, there is a computer fixing of costs and connection with the bank) . Other types of lexical units are used, such as: dial-a-taxi - “заказ такси по телефону", dial-meal - “заказ еды по телефону” (in these cases, as well as above, provides a computer linked to a center), etc.
Computerization is used in various fields of science and technology, leading to a large number of terminological neologisms. For example, in the field of linguistics: translation - “машинный перевод", interlingual - “искусственный язык для машинного перевода на несколько языков”, electronic - translator - “ЭВМ-переводчик”; в биометрии, в частности для обозначения биометрических средств защиты от воров: biometric security - “биометрическая защита”, biometric systems - “биометрические средства защиты”, biometric locks - “биометрические замки", computerized card - “карточки с биометрическим устройством, позволяющим открывать дверь, сейф и т.п. ", finger-print-scanner - “биометрическое устройство, распознающие отпечатки пальцев" (т.е. “узнающее" отпечатки пальцев того, кому можно открыть дверь, сейф и т.п.), biometric eye-scanner - “биометрическое устройство, распознающее особенности радужной оболочки глаза" (в разговорной речи это устройство получило название Eye-Dentity - своеобразный каламбур со словом identily), voice verification - “биометрическое устройство, распознающее голос"; в медицине: telemonitory systems\unit -“аппаратура, позволяющая врачу лечить больлных на расстоянии” (в разговорной речи данная аппаратура получила название Buddy System, to electronically monitor - “лечить больных на расстоянии с помощью соответствующей аппаратуры".
A relatively new group of semantic neologisms can be considered neolodisms, related to outer space. Since the priority of space exploration belongs to our country, in English, the first lexical units in this area have been borrowing from the Russian language, for example: sputnic, cosmos, cosmonaut, Lunokhod, planetokhod, etc. In connection with the development of the American space appeared neologisms in which is often used morpheme space-, eg: spaceship, spacenik - “космический корабль", spacefaring - “полеты в космос” (similar to the seafaring). Appeared neologisms, such as satellite - “искусственный спутник”, astronaut - “астронавт” Due to the experiment ofspecial apparatus for movement in space extravehicular any synonyms have been created space-bike b mini-bike in definition "автолет." By Space neologisms are also following lexical units: microgravity - “мкрогравитация", zero gravity - “нулевая гравитация", aerocapture - “тормозящее устройство космического корабля", retrorocket - “возвращающаяся ракета”, link up - “стыковка космический кораблей", cargo module - “грузовой отсек космического корабля", penguin suit - “скафандр космонавта", stellar brothers - “космонавты, совершающие совместный космический полет", etc.
New semantic group of neologisms are related to the alleged visits to earth by aliens from outer space, for example: UFO (Unidentified flying object) - “НЛО (неопознанный летающий объект) ” and the formation of the English abbreviations such as ufology - “уфология", ufologist - “уфолог", UFO-drome - “площадка, где садится НЛО", extra-terrestrials - “инопланетяне", saucerman - “инопланетянин", saucer"s feet - “отпечатки, оставленные летающей тарелкой".
A large number of neologisms were created with the development of the press.
Bigger bang for a buck - эффективное использование ассигнований на оборону, в основном за счет ядерных средств сдерживания.
Big lie - большая ложь, гитлеровская пропаганда.
Black hats - злодеи, негодяи.
Can carrier - козел отпущения.
Green power - власть денег.
Jane Crow - дискриминация женщин.
Larger than life - невероятный, сказочный, преувеличенный.
Log-roller - политический толкач.
Man on horseback - военный диктатор.
Pot-culture - образ жизни наркоманов.
Put-down - резкий ответ.
Trade off - компромисс.
Roll-call - перекличка для проверки наличия.
In connection with the development of aviation appeared following lexical units: airbus - “аэробус", helibus - “вертолет-автобус", seadrome - “гидроаэродром", to bail out - “катапультироваться" " and others when there were planes that require a small area for take-off and planting, had the following neologisms: STOL (Short Take-Off and Landing) - “укороченный пробег”, STOL-port - “аэродром для самолетов, с укороченным пробегом", verti-port - “аэродром для самолетов с вертикальным взлетом и посадкой".
In the field of fine art there is a rapid process of experimentation, and there are new manners of painting and other art works. [2; 76] For example, in the 60es of XX century there was abstract art, built on the basis of geometric shapes, and in connection with this direction had the following synonymous neologisms: minimal art, minimalism, rejected art, reductivism. In the same period, there were other art movements: : ABC art - “искусство, упрощающее и разлагающее на элементарные составные части цвет и форму", soft art - “искусство, использующее мягкие материалы”, kinetic art - “искусство, использующее движущиеся предметы (обычно части машин) ”, luminal art - “искусство, использующее световые эффекты", optical art (op art) - “искусство, использующее оптические эффекты”, pop art - “поп-арт, поп-искусство" (неавангардистское искусство, черпающее образы и формы из рекламных плакатов, комиксов и т.п. и создающее из них произвольные комбинации), action painting - “живопись, использующая приемы разбрызгивания, нашлепывания красок, revivalism - “школа современной живописи, возвращающаяся к старым формам и приемам живописного искусства”.
"In 70es was further expansion of the vocabulary of the semantic group in connection with the new direction that focused on the processes taking place in the artist's mind while creating their works of art. This trend is reflected in the following synonymous neologisms: conceptual art, process art, antifopm art. Impossible art. During the 80-es appeared neologism computer art - “искусство, использующее компьютеры”.
In the theatrical life there were also changes - new types of theatres, and with them new words, such as: theatre of absurd - “театр абсурда", theatre of cruelty - “театр жестокости", son et lumiere (фр. = sound fnd light) - “театр с использованием звуковых и световых эффектов", theatre of fact - “театр факта", black theatre - “негритянский театр" and others, among many other neologisms related to theatrical life, there are such, for example, nouns, as revolve - “вращающаяся сцена" и theatredom - “театральный мир".
In the field of film, television and video there were many new technical hardware behind them appeared a large number of neologisms, such as: inflight movies - “кинофильмы, демонстрирующиеся в полете на борту самолета", inflight videosystem - “видеосистема, используемая на борту самолета", serial - “многосерийный фильм с единой фабулой", series - “многосерийный фильм, в котором каждая серия имеет отдельный, законченный сюжет", featurette - “короткометражный документальный фильм", satellite-delivered show - “программа, передаваемая при помощи спутника", HDTV (High Definition Television) - “телевидение высокой четкости изображения", chat show - “интервью с знаменитостью, транслируемое со студии", kidvid - “телепередачи для детей", videoplayer - телевизор для воспроизведения видеозаписей”, video cassette - “видеокассета”, video-cassette recorder - “видеомагнитофон”, video - camera - “видеокамера", video-screen movie - “видеофильм"" etc.
A large number of neologisms arise in connection with the social changes taking place in the English-speaking countries. Among the most common social phenomena, especially specific to the UK, include the so-called feminist movement, that is, women's movement for equal rights with men. [3;154] Due to this movement there were a lot of new lexical items, such as: the Lib Movement - “феминистическое движение", libber, libbie - “участница или сторонница феминистического движения” etc.
It is interesting to note that in the 70es. the members of the feminist movement have declared English as a sexist language, ie, language, discriminatory female sex, because it contains more forms of masculine than feminine (usually because of the word man as a second component of the names of many professions). As a result, the name of the second component-man changed, for example: instead of the cameraman was more to use camera operator, instead of firemen - firefighter, instead of policemen - police-officer, instead of the chairman - chairperson, instead of Congressman - Congressperson (though many of the words with the second component - person instead -man are often used with a touch of humor, irony), instead of businessmen - bu sinesspeople, even in church mankind replaced by the people.
At the same time, the name of women's jobs are replaced by the neutral forms, such as instead of the stewardess is used flight attendant, or, if these professions are busy by men is the token male, for example: male nurse, male secretary, male exotic dancer, etc.
As a result of women antidicrimination is the use of a written language he / she in the cases referred to when a person can be either male or female. Abridged version - s / he – is less employed.
The same result of feminist movement can be considered the introduction of forms Ms [miz], representing a reduction of graphical forms Mrs and Miss, which emphasize the marital status of women. Form Ms, as well as the form Mr, applied to men, does not include the underscore.
An important aspect of the life of society is the sphere of education. In the UK in 1988 was issued a new education law, known as Gerbil (Great Education Reform Bill). Due to this law, there were many neologisms, such as: City Technology Colleges - название нового вида школ, которые субсидируются центральными (а не местными, как большинство школ старого типа) органами образования и в которые отбираются дети в возрасте 11 лет на основании экзаменов, получивших название Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs); grand-maintained status - название статуса, который имеют школы типа City Technology Colleges и другие учебные заведения, субсидируемые центральными органами образования; Teacher Appraisal - оценка деятельности учителя, в соответствии с которой он получает заработную плату (оценка зависит от количества учеников у данного учителя и качества их подготовки - после экзаменов типа SATs, если позволяют результаты экзаменов, родители сами выбирают школу и учителя для своих детей, а качество подготовки учеников проверяется с помощью специальных контрольных работ); licensed teachers - учителя, не имеющие высшего педагогического образования, но прошедшие практику в школе на основе базового образования и получившие свидетельство, которое дает им право обучать детей; star schools, non-star schools термины, обозначающие школы для учащихся разного уровня обучения (этот уровень определяются с помощью вступительных экзаменов, в частности экзаменов типа SATs) etc.
Recently, there are new methods of teaching, which are indicated by the following neologisms: sleep-teaching - “обучение во сне”, CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory of Automated School System) - “класс программированного обучения", TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) - “система обучения английскому языку как иностранному”, multimedia lecture - “лекция с использованием нескольких средств информации (видеомагнитофона, телевизора, магнитофона и др.) ”, telelecture, telecourse - “учебная программа по телевидению" etc.
There are new types of educational institutions, such as: megaversity - “крупный университет, в котором обучается много тысяч студентов”, multiversity - “университет с большим количеством факультетов", para-university - “университет на общественных началах (со свободной программой) ”, para-school - “школа на общественных началах".
Instead, the terms student, pupil, were more likely to use the term educatee, schooler; coined the term educationalist - “специалист (теоретик или практик) в области просвещения".
English, as well, as other languages of the world, is enriched by the active vocabulary for the members of different professions, social groups and ages. [4;329]
For example, only one need in the names of various professional jargons spawned many neologisms with the second component -speak: Artsspeak - “жаргон художников", Sportsspeak - “жаргон спортсменов", Medspeak - “жаргон медиков", Teacherspeak - “жаргон учителей", Videospeak - “жаргон пользователей видеоаппаратуры", Cablespeak - “жаргон работников кабельного телевидения" etc. Neologisms, typical for vocabulary of high society such as dial-a-meal, dial-a-taxi became publicly known. Also many of the words and expressions, typical for adolescents became famous, such as: Drugs! - “Согласен! ”, “Хорошо! ”, “Правильно!" (is used instead OK), sweat - “бег на длинные дистанции", task - “домашнее сочинение”, brunch (сокр. от breakfast+lunch) - “поздний завтрак" etc.
Under the neologisms are defined as any new vocabulary and phraseological units, which appeared in the language at this stage of its development and or designating new concepts arising from the development of science and technology, new conditions of life, social and political changes, etc., or expressing new words created in order to emotional and stylistic already existing concepts.
Neologisms of the second type are called stylistic neologisms unlike terminological neologisms, which we call the first group of new words. Both the first and the second group of neologisms have a variety of stylistic features and are used for various purposes.
Neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books neologisms are sometimes created by unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes clearer, vivid, and tangible. The means of new words formation so often act as a stylistic devices.
Professor RA Budagov quite rightly notes that "in neologisms of the language usually find unity sustained and sustainable, on the one hand, and an unstable, moving, changing - with another." [5;90]
Stylistic features of neologisms differ depending on whether the neologism is terminology or style, that is, in other words, whether it is created to indicate the newly formed concepts of objective reality or to an already existing concept to explain in a special way.
The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in the language of English writers are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words
In the early periods of English art style speech, a significant role in the formation of stylistic neologisms played barbarisms. Recently, borrowing give way to the semantic process of education writers neologisms.
"The turning point in the history of many words’meanings - says V.V.Vinogradov, - is their new acutely expressive and imaginative individual use. (Emphasis added - I. D). This is a new and original use of the word if it complies with the general trends of development of the semantic language, often determines all further semantic history of the word. "
The same observation makes and R.A. Budagov in work on the language and style of Ilf and Petrov.
"The writers - he writes - do not create proper morphological neologisms, but they are able to extract from the already existing words and more new shades. This is achieved by Ilf and Petrov due to movement seemingly incidental, meaning of the word in the center of attention of the reader, which inevitably pushes common understanding of the word into the background and creates a kind of semantic neologism. "[6;147]
"Watching for a moment of weakness she wrenched it free; then placing the dining table between them, said between her teeth: "You are the limit, Monty". (Undoubtedly the inception of this phrase - so is English formed under the stress of circumstance).
As an illustration stylistic neologisms we can cite the following:
... besides, there is a tact -
(That modern phrase appears to me sad stuff.
But it will serve to keep my verse compact).
(Byron. Don Juan)
Sense in which is used here the word tact appeared, according to the Oxford dictionary in 1804, and Byron, acutely aware of the novelty of the word, reluctantly accepts it.
Another example is the following passage from the novel by Galsworthy "In Chancery", where the author notes the birth of a new meaning of the word limit – невыносимый.
As pointed out by the historian of English Baugh, Modern English many new words arreared thanks to Spencer, Thomas More, Milton, who, by the way, is attributed to the birth of such words as consolidate, disregard, sensuous. Sydney is believed to have created such words as emancipate, eradicate, exist, extinguish, harass, meditate, etc.
An interesting form is neologism Blimp - a fictional name created by cartoonist Lowe to describe rude, smug, ultra-conservative British army colonel. Hence, is the adjective blimpish.
Attitide to neologisms, is expressed differently at different stages of development of modern English language. We have already mentioned the play of Ben Johnson's "The Poetaster," which shows that many words, firmly included in the modern literary language, viewed as undesirable neologisms in the literary language of the XVI century.
Many neologisms created by the authors, remained in the sphere of individual consumption. Others go beyond such use. For example, pickwickian have only Dickens neologism unlike quixotic, which came into the vocabulary of the English language as a fully fledged unit of the vocabulary of the language.
Therefore, not every word, and even created in accordance with the internal laws of the relevant language, automatically enters the vocabulary. Neologism must undergo a significant period of testing in a public speech practice, in order to win the "right of citizenship" in the vocabulary of the language and become part of the vocabulary.
The main functions of stylistic neologisms are two: the first is disclosure of some additional features of the phenomenon and the second is revealing one’s relationship to the facts of objective reality.
In the style of rhythmic speech the second function is the leading in stylistic neologisms. Thus, most writers neologisms are characterized by a strong emotional meaning.
The first function, i.e. disclosure of some additional features of the phenomenon often appears in the style of speech, where most is reflected ripple in social life of the people who speak that language, in newspaper-style. In these neologisms, especially in the meanings of political neologisms, are easy to install due to certain events and facts of political life of the English society at a given period of its development.
How easy are formed neologisms in language newspaper, is the following example. During the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt in political terminology of the United States of America had a new term - New Deal with meaning - новые мероприятия политического и экономического характера, направленные на оздоровление американской экономики. Later, in American newspapers appeared derivative word New Dealish.
Last Monday Mr. Eisenhower outlined to Republican Congressional leaders his mildly New Dealish domestic program...
In any English flimsy you can find such neologisms as Prime Ministerless, to out-British, magpietude, intellectualistic eggheads, Megabuck (1,000,000 dollars), and many others.
Many stylistic neologisms appeared in the pages of British newspapers in connection with the launch of artificial Earth satellite in the USSR. Such, for example, words to out-sputnik, orbiting, orbitch (from orb + bitch - so named Laika the dog), post sputnik (era), and others. There are also interesting neologisms have appeared in connection with the concept of the meeting at the highest level. Here are some of them: summit conference, summiteer, summitry ("верхушечность"), etc.
Recently, a number of articles, in lectures, reports, speeches on the radio there are protests against unbridled newspaper and individual coinages. So Ottawa Evening Journal in the article "Let us finalise all this nonsense" writes:
"We diarise, we earlierise, any day we may begin to futurise,...
We also itinerise, and reliableise; and we not only decontaminate and dehumidife but we debureaucratise and we deinsectise. We are, in addition, discovering how good and pleasant it is to fellowship with one another... .
... let"s finalise all this nonsense."
Most of the literary book neologisms are formed by means of affixation and compounding, as opposed to spoken neologisms, which will be discussed below, and which are formed by means of conversion and change themeanings of the words.
The life of neologisms depends on how they are tested in social practice, what is the need of this word to refer to the relevant concepts, and how many "rivals" - synonymous funds has given word in the vocabulary of the language.
Many neologisms completely disappear from the language, and some writers neologisms are fixed by English dictionaries indicating the author. The same words that were born in the midst of the people, are not often fixed and disappear without a trace.
Neologism has a short life. As soon as it is tested in the practice of public use, it ceases to be a neologism.
The verb to admire initially meant respectively the Latin meaning of the word "удивляться". This meaning has been completely superseded by the meaning of which developed in the word and remaining in the modern English language, that is, восхищаться. We could cite many examples of changes in the meanings of words, where the new meanings in some period of its formation are regarded as neologisms, and then either approved in its meaning (sometimes coexisting with the old one), or disappear from the language completely.
Stylistic features of neologisms are functions arising from the meaning of the means of the formation of new words. If there is a group of English suffixes that are used to give emotional meaning to the word (diminutive, derogatory, magnifiers, etc.), it is natural that neologisms formed by this means will perform this emotional function (see, for example, such tumors, as clippie, bookie, etc.).
If new words are formed by the conversion, the main function of the neologism is associated with a more concise and sometimes imaginative interpretation of the phenomenon. For example, to corner somebody is загнать кого-нибудь в угол will be imaginative interpretation of the narrative turn to put somebody into a corner.
Special features are neologisms formed by some writers who wish to depart from the usual means of expression. It is known that the Futurists believed that the language can not express the variety of feelings and shades of thought, therefore, that the language gradually loses the ability nuances of thought that for such nuances need a new language, new words. [7;67]
Naturally, these words could not remain in the language. The function of such neologisms is function of decoration. They like poeticisms make the language of poetry in the language for the few and pervert the language norm.
In neologisms function "perversion" most finds expression in the English literature by poets-esthetes of XIX-XX centuries, such as Swinburne, Thomas Elliott and others. These withheld in the language of neologisms include the writer's word singultus - the medical term used to explain the concept of Byron, usually expressed by the word sob.
Types of neologism
Scientific -- words or phrases created to describe new scientific discoveries or inventions. Examples:
black hole. (1968) A black hole is a concentration of mass great enough that the force of gravity prevents anything from escaping from it except through quantum tunneling behavior.
laser. (1960) A LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam.
prion. Prions -- short for proteinaceous infectious particle -- are infectious self-reproducing protein structures.
quark. (1960) Quarks are one of the two basic constituents of matter in the Standard Model of particle physics.
radar . (1941) It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance of), and map objects such as aircraft and rain.
posterized. Posterization occurs when a region of an image with a continuous gradation of tone is replaced with several regions of fewer tones, resulting in an abrupt change from one tone to another. This creates an effect somewhat similar to that of a simple graphic poster.
beetle bank. (early 1990s) In agriculture, a beetle bank is a strip of grass or perennials in a field that provide habitat which fosters and provides cover for insects hostile to pests. They are used as a form of biological pest control to reduce or replace the use of insecticides.
· Science fiction concepts created to describe new, futuristic ideas. Examples:
Ringworld (1971) Ringworld is a Hugo and Nebula award-winning 1970 science fiction novel by Larry Niven, set in his Known Space universe. The work is widely considered one of the classics of science fiction literature. It is followed by three sequels, and it ties in to numerous other books in the Known Space universe.
Dyson Sphere (circa 1960) A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure first described in 1960 by the physicist Freeman Dyson in a short paper published in the journal Science entitled "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation".
· Political -- words or phrases created to make some kind of political or rhetorical point, sometimes perhaps with an eye to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Example:
political correctness (1990). Political correctness (also politically correct, P.C. or PC) is a term used in English-speaking countries to describe real or perceived attempts to impose limits on the acceptable language and terms used in public discussion. While it usually refers to a linguistic phenomenon, it is sometimes extended to cover political ideology or public behavior.
sie and hir (neologisms). Sie and hir are two terms proposed to serve as gender-neutral third person singular personal pronouns in English . These neologisms are used by some people who feel that there are problems with gender-specific pronouns because they imply sex and/or gender. However, sie and hir are very rare compared to other solutions and most commentators feel that it is unlikely that they will catch on.
homophobia (1969). The term "homophobia" is a portmanteau derived from the words homosexual and phobia. In current usage it is employed to refer to the aversion to, or disapproval of physical intimacy and sexual expression between individuals of the same sex and those who engage in such activities. This aversion may range from mild to intense.
meritocracy (1958) As the suffix "-cracy" implies, meritocracy is strictly speaking a system of government based on rule by ability (merit) rather than by wealth or social position. In this context, "merit" means roughly intelligence plus effort. However, the word "meritocracy" is now often used to describe a type of society where wealth, income, and social status are assigned through competition, on the assumption that the winners do indeed deserve (merit) their resulting advantage. As a result, the word has acquired a connotation of Social Darwinism, and is used to describe aggressively competitive societies, with large inequality of income and wealth, contrasted with egalitarian societies.
dog-whistle politics (1990). Dog-whistle politics is a term used to describe a type of political campaigning which is "only heard" by a specific intended audience. It is usually used pejoratively by those that do not approve of the tactics.
genocide. Genocide is the systematic killing of substantial numbers of people on the basis of ethnicity, religion, political opinion, social status or other particularity. The most widely known example is the Holocaust (the genocide of various groups, especially Jews, during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators). Lesser known in the West are Stalin's forced starvation of Ukrainian farmers, or Mao's murder of 20 to 60 million Chinese
Some political neologisms, however, are intended to convey a negative point of view. Example: brutalitarian
· Pop-culture -- words or phrases evolved from mass media content or used to describe popular culture phenomena (these may be considered a subsection of slang). Examples:
jumping the shark. Jumping the shark is a metaphor used by US television critics and fans since the 1990s. The phrase, popularized by Jon Hein on his website, jumptheshark.com, is used to describe the moment when a pop culture icon, originally a TV show or similar episodic medium, is in retrospect judged to have passed its "peak" and shows a noticeable decline in quality, or when it has undergone too many changes that take away the original charm and interest.
Chuck Cunningham syndrome. Chuck Cunningham syndrome is a term that refers to a television series in which a main character or a character otherwise important to the show's plot is removed without explanation. The term comes from the character Chuck Cunningham in the American television series, Happy Days.
Baldwin (a good-looking man, such as one of the Baldwin family of actors)
Scooby Gang (a group which humorously resembles the teens on the cartoon Scooby-Doo)
sex-it-up a recently used phrase describing the memo that was said to be the cause of the Iraq invasion.
· Imported -- words or phrases originating in another language. Typically they are used to express ideas that have no equivalent term in the native language. Examples:
zen (1727). Zen is the Japanese name of a well known branch of Mahвyвna Buddhist schools, practiced originally in China as Chan (вW), and subsequently in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Zen emphasizes the role of sitting meditation (zazen) in pursuing enlightenment. Zen can be considered a religion, a philosophy, or simply a practice depending on one's perspective. It has also been described as a way of life, work, and an art form.Zen is the common name for this branch of Buddhism in Japanese as well as in English. However, in the last half of the 20th century, Zen has become an international phenomenon, with centers in many countries around the world.
ao dai (1960s). The ao dai (pronounced 'ao yai' in the South; pronounced 'ao zai' in the North) is a traditional Vietnamese dress worn by women. It is the uniform for female students in Vietnamese secondary schools and universities. The ao dai is and has been more prevalent in southern Vietnam than in northern Vietnam.
Tet (1968). T?t Nguyen ?an (derived from Chinese ђЯЊі’U), more commonly known as T?t (ђЯ), is the most important holiday in Vietnam. It is the Vietnamese New Year which is based on the Chinese calendar, a lunisolar calendar.
anime (1988). Anime (ѓAѓjѓЃ) is Japanese animation, sometimes referred to by the portmanteau Japanimation. It is often characterized by stylized colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines, aimed at a wide range of audiences. Anime is usually influenced by Japanese comics known as manga.
detente (1960s). Detente is French for relaxation. It was also the general reduction in the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and a weakening of the Cold War, occurring from the late 1960s until the start of the 1980s. More generally, it may be applied to any international situation where previously hostile nations not involved in an open war "warm up" to each other and threats de-escalate.
manga. Manga (–џ‰ж) is the Japanese word for comics and/or cartoons (not necessarily animated, this includes print cartoons); outside of Japan, it usually refers specifically to Japanese comics. Manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo-e and Western styles of drawing, and took its current form shortly after World War II.
· Trademarks are often neologisms to ensure they are distinguished from other brands. If legal trademark protection is lost, the neologism may enter the language as a genericized trademark. Example: Laundromat. A laundromat (U.S.), launderette (British), Washette (Southeastern U.S.) or washateria (Southwestern U.S.) is a store where clothes are washed and dried. This is often done by coin operated machines that are worked by the client. Laundromats may have a staff to wash the clothing; this is referred to as Fluff-n-Fold or drop-off service. Laundries are equipped with both washing machines and dryers, usually specialized ones designed to survive heavy use.
· Nonce words -- words coined and used only for a particular occasion, usually for a special literary effect.
· Inverted -- words that are derived from spelling (and pronouncing) a standard word backwards. Example: redrum
· Paleologism - a word that is alleged to be a neologism but turns out to be a long-used (if obscure) word. Used ironically.
Versions of neologisms
*Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a very small subculture.
*Diffused - Having reached a significant audience, but not yet having gained acceptance.
*Stable - Having gained recognizable and probably lasting acceptance.
Neologisms can be defined as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense. Unless they are opaque, obscure and possibly cacophonous.
Newmark proposed 12 types of neologisms:
A) Existing lexical items with new senses:
1. Words
2. Collocations
B) New forms:
1. New coinages
2. Derived words
3. Abbreviations
4. Collocations
5. Eponyms
6. Phrasal words
7. Transferred words (new and old referents)
8. Acronyms (new and old referents)
9. Pseudo-neologisms
10. Internationalism
1.2 Methods of forming neologisms
All neologisms, their morphological structure and the character values are together along the lines of English word-building traditions, when exists the need for a new word.
Modern English has many ways of forming new words, which include compounding, conversion, reduction, adektivization, substantivization, back formation, lexical-semantic way, alternating sounds and the transfer of stress in a word (phonological way), etc. However, not all of these methods are used to the same extent, and the share of each in the word-formation processes varies.
We will discuss the most common of these methods, formation of neologisms, such as:
Affixal way (prefixing and suffixing ways)
Compounding
Conversion
Reduction
Borrowing from other languages
Contact derivation
Symphysis.
Abbreviation.
Next, we explain each of these in more detail
Affixes units account for 24% of all tumors and slightly inferior to compound words. A characteristic feature is the formation in scientific terms: for example, the suffix-on (elementary unit or particle) is used to create such terms as: gluon новая элементарная частица в физике, склеивающая кварки, luxon элементарная частица с нулевой массой. In edaphology taxonomy is actively used the new suffix-sol (from the Latin solum почва) to determine the different types of soil: aridisol (in the American version) почва пустынь, histosol влажные почвы, глиняные почвы, hioxisol тропические почвы.
Prefixing units demonstrate the increased role of prefixes. The main source of prefixes is Latin, French and Greek: acro-, bio-, xeno-, micro-, euro-, tele-, etc. Their use is generally limited to scientific and technical fields. Some prefixes are singled out phrases and compound words: dial-a (to refer to a service that can be ordered by phone) of dialphone, for example, dial-a-bus, dial-a-meal.
Extremely popular in the U.S. unofficially prefix mega-, acting as reinforcement particle. In recent years, the prefix is used heavily in the vocabulary of teenagers. For example, for the expression of the highest rated events, phenomena, people use the word megadual (totally awesome) is something very good. Dual in this case is used in the meaning «в два раза лучше».
Suffixed units greater are used in everyday life and are more marked "slang". Thus, one of the most commonly used slang suffix is the suffix -y/-ie, (ironic meaning). The words formed with its help have a restriction of the use of the framework of informal communication, especially among young people. For example: Например: groupie поклонник поп-ансамбля или звезды, повсюду сопровождающих их; roadie член группы музыкантов, ответственный за транспортировку и установку аппаратуры; weapy сентиментальный фильм; preppie ученик частной привилегированной школы (is used ironically by middle class); tekky (techno-freak) человек, одержимый техническими новшествами.
Compounding
One of the most ancient, universal and common methods of derivation in the English language is the word composition. The process of compounding is a merger of the two bases - homonymous word forms. For example, carryback is «перенос убытков, на более ранний период», think-tank is «коллективный мозг».
When connecting words ending and beginning with the same vowel or consonant, one of them falls:
net + etiquette = netiquette «неписаные общепринятые правила общения или размещение информации в Интернет».
The number of hard-derived units increases. The main productive suffix is the suffix-er: page-turner чрезвычайно интересная книга; all-nighter нечто, длящееся всю ночь, for example, занятия во время сессии.
Among the complex units, high proportions are words formed by particles and adverbs, especially for adjectives and verbs Laid-back расслабленный, buttoned-down консервативный, традиционный, turned-on взволнованный, switched-off отключенный, ничего не чувствующий.
One of the most commonly used multi-component models has become in recent time, the model with the word line, which is on the verge of difficult words and phrases: straight-line responsibility прямая ответственность; dotted-line responsibility ответственность, поделенная на двоих; bottom-line окончательный; top-of-the-line самый лучший. This model is limited to the use of informal communication situations by the business community
Very often, when a similar method of forming, neologisms have a satirical painting, especially in the press, "... that they taste the same in Peking as they do in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald's ». In this case, the author wishes to draw attention to the significant development of a chain of restaurants, "McDonald's", fast food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena. And like other economic laws are equally valid in the different countries, "... that in Pekin they taste the same as in London or New York, that's it, "McDonald's" created a world gamburgernomiku
In general, multi-component units that are used in everyday conversation, more characteristic of American, for example: to nickel-and-dime уделять большое внимание мелочам, meat-and-potatoes основной, nuts-and-bolts базисный, quick-and-dirty бар, кафе, где можно быстро перекусить.
Conversion
Conversion is transition from one word to another part of speech. For example, now in the Internet we can often see E-mail me / us to ... Clarifying the meaning of this neologism is easy. Syntactic context makes it possible to determine the membership of the words to transitive verbs, and knowing the meaning of the word E-mail (электронная почта) we translate: Высылайте сообщения электронной почтой по адресу …
Conversion as a way of creating new words slashed its activity and is inferior to all other types of word formation
Among the converted nouns growing trend towards the formation of verbs with postpositions: rip-off воровство (from to rip-off воровать). A significant number of new nouns are formed by the conversion of adjectives, such as: collectbles предметы, подлежащие коллекционированию, особенно устаревшие или редкие; cool самоконтроль, сдержанность часто употребляется во фразах to lose one`s cool, to keep one`s cool (потерять контроль, сдержаться).
Especially productive formation of nouns from adjectives ending in - ic, such as: acrylic, transuranic, tricyclic. Nouns can be formed from the verb phrases, for example: work-to-rule выступление рабочих с требованиями соблюдать все пункты трудового договора.
In the formation of nouns from adjectives on the semantic level is muted seme "quality" and add seme "object", which became the center of meaning of the substantivized unit: acrylic акрил (синтетический материал).
Thus, the conversion gives an enrichment of the notion.
According to the territorial setting new converted units are limited mainly by American version and, less by British English.
Reduction
Among the irregular methods for forming morphological neologisms most productive in the last decade are reductions that reflect the tendency to rationalize the language to language-saving efforts. Despite the fact that the reductions are only a small percentage of the total number of neologisms, their number is growing. Of the four types of reductions (abbreviations, acronyms, trimming, merging) dominate the truncated words. For example: anchor <anchorman обозреватель новостей, координирующий теле- или радиопрограммы Word is limited in use in the U.S. version (in the British version it corresponds to the presenter, lib <liberation).
The feature of truncations is their use is limited in the spoken language.
Truncation is most typical for different types of slang (school, sports, newspaper).
Among the examples cited above prevail newspaper clipping. So, upmanship often appears in English newspapers, and is used in advertisements, in the recommendations of how to achieve success.
For example: Upmanship is the art of being one up on all the others. Hospital upmanship: My Doc is better `n yours. Among the reductions, large place occupied abbreviations and acronyms. VCR (vidio-cassette recorder), TM (transcendental meditation), PC (personal computer), MTV (Music Television). Typically, the abbreviations are spelled.
When the abbreviation is found only on the letter, it reads like a complete word. A new is the lack of periods after each letter abbreviations that brings them closer to the acronyms. Acronyms are pronounced as complete words. For example: MIPS (million instructions per second) миллион инструкций в секунду (computer term); CAD (computer-aided design) - in medicine.
A big attention is for the acronyms that are used in the field of education: TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language); everyone knows the international organization of teachers of English as a Foreign Language IATEFL (International Association of Teachers English as a Foreign Language) and the US-based TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages); in the environmental field: UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program).
Borrowing from other languages
Borrowing the words of others is a common method of forming neologisms. It used in the absence of an identical word in the target language. We give some examples.
«The Soviets had Sputnik, but the Americans had their open-plan kitchen. No contest ». Советский Союз создал "Спутник", а американцы создали кухню открытого типа. Out of competition.
Contact derivation
Contact derivation is the process of formation of verbs by truncating the suffix of correlative nouns. For example, televise - показывать по телевидению from television - телевидение.
Symphysis.
Symphysis is the connection or a truncated root of one word to a whole word or a combination of two truncated roots:
forex reserve (forex = foreign + exchange) - резервы в иностранной валюте;
impex transactions (impex = import + export) - экспортно-импортные сделки Abbreviation
Among the existing types of word-formation a special attention have partly abbreviated acronyms, the essence of which is the acronym of one of the components, eg, B-unit (Barclays currency unit) международная денежная единица банка "Барклейз бэнк интернешнл", Fed Wire - система электронной связи федеральных резервных банков (США).
Blends
New words can also be formed from existing ones by various blending processes: for example, motel (from motor hotel), infomercial (from information and commercial), edutainment (from education and entertainment), brunch (from breakfast and lunch), cafetorium (from cafeteria and auditorium), netiquette (from network etiquette), trashware (from trash and software), and bit (from binary and digit)
Generified Words
The words Kleenex and Xerox illustrate another technique for creating new words, namely, using specific brand names of products as names for the products in general (generification). Hence Kleenex, a brand name for facial tissue, has come to denote facial tissue in general. Xerox is the name of the corporation that produces a well-known photocopying machine, and much to the dismay of the company, the term Xerox has lost its specific brand-name connotation and has come to be used to describe the process of photocopying in general.
Borrowing: Direct
Yet another way to expand our vocabulary is to "borrow" words from other languages. Speakers of English aggressively borrow words from other languages. We have kindergarten (German), and sushi (Japanese) among many others.
Borrowing: Indirect
An interesting type of borrowing occurs when an expression in one language is translated literally into another language. For example, the borrowed terms firewater and iron horse are literal translations of Native American words meaning "alcohol" and "railroad train".
Semantic Drift
Over time the meanings of words can change, or drift. A rather striking example of change has occurred in the word lady. Half of it was the Old English word for "bread" (related to the modern word loaf) and dighe was the word for "kneader" (related to the modern word dough). Thus, the original "kneader of bread" has experienced a rather remarkable increase in status.
Compounds and Compounding
In English (as in many other languages) new words can be formed from already existing words by a process known as compounding, in which individual words are "joined together" to form a compound word. For example, the noun ape can be joined with the noun man to form to form the compound noun ape-man; the adjective red can be joined with the adjective hot to form the compound adjective red-hot.
Compounds are not limited to two words, as shown by examples such as bathroom towel-rack and community center finance committee. Indeed, the process of compounding seems unlimited in English: starting with a word like sailboat, we can easily construct the compound sailboat rigging, from which we can in turn create sailboat rigging design, sailboat rigging design training, sailboat rigging design training institute, and so on.
The Agentive Suffix '-er'
Agentive nouns are formed by the word formation rule "Add the suffix '-er' to a verb".
The Diminutive Suffix '-y/-ie'
English has a so-called diminutive suffix, usually spelled -y (or -i.e.), which is added to nouns such as those in the following pairs: dad-daddy, mom-mommy, dog-doggy, and horse-horsie.
How to Translate Neologisms
Dictionaries lag behind changes in languages. New words, figurative words and phrases, slang and nonce words are coined in the language so swiftly that no dictionary can and should register them immediately. Indeed, the number of neologisms appearing in mass media during a year amounts to tense of thousands in developed languages. For example:
English: schoolteacherly
Russian: студент-платник (a student who pays tuition fees)
Therefore, translators have to find out the meaning of very new neologisms mainly based on the context (a sentence, paragraph, chapter or even the whole document) in which the neologism is used. Neologisms are usually formed on the basis of words and morphemes that already exist in the language. The analysis of these words and morphemes is an additional helpful tool in finding out the meaning of the neologism. For this purpose, the translator should remember word-formation rules, in particular the following:
1. Giving words new affixes (i.e. suffixes, prefixes, and endings attached to words/word stems to form new words), for example:
English: losingest, googling, telescam
Russian: постсоветский (post-Soviet), мобильник (a mobile phone), наркотизм (narcotism)
2. Creation of new meaning of existing words, for example:
English: footprint - an impact on our planet
Russian: мыло ("an email" - the new IT-slang meaning; "a soap" - the traditional meaning)
3. Loanwords (mostly professional and scientific terms borrowed from other languages), for example:
English: glasnost (from Russian: publicity, openness), ponzu (from Japanese: a sauce made with soy sauce and citrus juice), chuddies (from Hindi: underpants)
Russian: бизнес-ланч (from English: a business lunch), секьюрити (from English: a bodyguard), спичрайтер (from English: a speech writer)
4. Semi-abbreviations (words made up of parts of other words), abbreviations and acronyms, for example:
English: biosecurity, nomophobia (an abbreviation for "no-mobile-phone phobia" which means a fear of being out of mobile phone contact), FSU (the Former Soviet Union)
Russian: СПИД (AIDS), страхагент (an insurance agent), туроператор (a tour operator)
Ways of translating neologisms:
- Selection of an appropriate analogue in a target language
- Transcription and transliteration
- Loan translation and calque
- Explanatory translation and descriptive translation
Thus, neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books are sometimes created neologisms and unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes more clear, vivid, tangible. The facilities themselves forming new words so often act as a stylistic device.
Thus, on the one hand, recently in the language there are multiple ways to form a new vocabulary (affixation, compounding, blending, abbreviation, conversion) reflecting semantic and word-formation processes in the language during this period.
On the other hand, the formation of semantic neologism is the result of linguistic and creative activity related to the transition of the new units of a particular individual consumption in the use of language community. The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in modern English are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words.
1.3 Translation of neologisms
Neologisms are new words that appear in the language as a result of various changes in society, culture, science and art. It is necessary to distinguish between two kinds of neologisms, new words and new meanings that emerged from the "old" words. Both species are difficult to translate, because these words and meanings can not be found in ordinary English-Russian dictionaries and not always to be found even in the newest English-English dictionaries. Each translator well knowns that any dictionary behinds in registering new words, and meanings of at least several years. It suffices to compare dictionaries before the Second World War and the post-war period to make sure stark contrast. But behind the dictionary - this is not the most serious problem for the translator.
Another factor, hindering the registration of neologisms in the Anglo-Russian and in English-English dictionaries is their temporary, fleeting existence in a language that is observed the same phenomenon as in the slang. Neologisms and other figurative words and phrases, as well, as slangisms born so quickly, especially in the language of journalism, science and technology, which, according to I.R. Halperin, "there is no dictionary which can and should immediately fix their appearance". That's why British lexicographers call many neologisms "occasional" that is addicting unusual, accident. The "occasional" is further enhanced in those cases where a new coinage is slang word from, i.e. from the field of language, which is generally, as mentioned above, is characterized by high variability.
What should the translator do in cases, when he meets a neologism? First of all it is necessary to understand the meaning of the neologism based on the context and the analysis of its structure. To make sure the difficulties of translation of neologisms, we consider some examples. Phrases, I can dig it; do you dig this song? cannot be translated on the basis of the common meanings of the verb to dig. Just open the dictionary "The American Heritage", we can find the following meaning of the verb to dig, not registered in other dictionaries year earlier editions: to comprehend, to appreciate, to enjoy (slang), that is, translated into Russian: понимать, оценивать, нравиться. Translation of the above proposals wills, therefore, is this: I love it, do you like this song? Further study of the etymology of the verb to dig shows that in its meaning it came from the jargon of the Beat (the beat jargon), and then was picked up by the media, resulting in the present, this meaning to dig became widely known. Consequently, in this case translator retrieves the desired meaning based on the context and a dictionary.
In another case, a root word structure must help. The word peacenik recently appeared in the English language. BARS haven’t this word. How should translate it? Breaking the word into two parts peace + nik, you can guess that the nik- is suffix for forming nouns. Under the influence of the Russian suffix (com. sputnik, lunik) in the English words of this kind began to appear more and more often. Consequently, peacenik - это участник мирных демонстраций, манифестант, борец за мир. The same can be said about the term nixonomics. So, American journalists dubbed the economic policies of former U.S. President Nixon. At first, the term was used only joking, but now it is quite commonly used in print and can be found even in official texts. [8; 289].
Here are some more examples. The adjective heavy recently is used in everyday speech, not only in the sense "тяжелый", but in the sense "веский", "сильный" (for example, that "s a heavy idea - это убедительная идея.) The word bust in the United States recently began to be used in the meaning of "сделать налет", "арестовать" (Charlie got busted last night - Чарли вчера арестовали; and dope bust - облава на торговцев наркотиками), and also in the sense of "сделать ошибку", "проваливаться" and, finally, in the sense of "нарушать", "урезать" (to bust prices - резко снизить цены). The word hassle as a neologism in everyday speech is used to mean trouble, bother (don" t hassle me = don "t bother me)., However, recently, it has become increasingly be used in the sense "проблема", "трудность" (that "sa real hassle of his - да это у него серьезная проблема).
Thanks to advertising, the word put down was as a neologism "отвергать", especially in the form of a critical (or abusive) comment. ("The American Heritage") The same can be said about the word strung-out. In the dictionary of Mueller, the word to string is "растягиваться вереницей". In the future, the word strung-out, apparently formed a new meaning, "избитый ", "изувеченный", "изуродованный" (He is really strung-out). As neologisms synonyms we can cite the followings: spaced, wasted, wrecked. (He was wasted in Vietnam. = He was wrecked in Vietnam. = He was killed in Vietnam. - Он был убит во Вьетнаме)
Close synonym with this group of words is a neologism trash. In the modern use of this word in the United States it has acquired, in particular the meaning "разрушать", "уродовать", "портить", "громить" [for example, to trash a building = to destroy a building - разрушать здание; to go out trashing == to go out for things to destroy - заниматься порчей имущества (сооружений)].
Relatively recently, the vocabulary of the English language in the United States added by neologism "rip off with the basic meaning "своровать", "украсть", "стащить", "опустошить". In addition, the verb to rip off is sometimes used to mean "домогаться денег" (radical groups ripping off the promoters of rock concerts - (молодежные) радикальные группы, которые пытаются "выколотить" денежки у организаторов концертов ультрасовременной музыки. Perhaps, therefore, a new phrase rip off artist - мастер на все руки, ловкач, пройдоха, synonym shifty person.
Finally, it should be made about the use of the neologism rip-off in the meaning "убийство", "расправа" (You never know. He"s going to get ripped off one of these days- Как знать. Его когда-нибудь могут прикончить). Of course, these meanings can not be known not only to the novice interpreter, but by many English speakers, detached from the sphere of slang, "language" hippie or youth jargon.
The word gig is relatively widely used in a new meaning "работа" (job) (I"ve got a gig on Saturday - В субботу мне удалось найти работу). Especially often this meaning neologism is used in the speech of American musicians (a newgig=a new occupation - новое занятие). The word jive is, perhaps, partly supplanted the word nonsense (Don"t give that jive - Кончай говорить этот вздор). This phrase can be heard in the speech of young people. The verb Jive is often used in speech and in the sense "шутить"(You"ve just jiving me, man - Да ты меня, я вижу, разыгрываешь).
Other most widely known neologisms of 70s are: dude in the sense "человек, парень" (He"s a nice dude - Он славный малый) and a cat, which is often used to mean "паренек", "браток", "братишка". At this plural noun is used in the sense of "ребята", "парни". (There are some really fine cats in that band! - В этом оркестре отличные ребята!). "The American Heritage" as slang cat gives the following: a man - "человек". In the political language fat cats are «денежные мешки», "лица, оказывающие щедрую финансовую поддержку политическим кандидатам".
The word cool as a neologism is used in the sense "успокоиться", "взять себя в руки". In this connection there is an idiom cool it, which means "успокойся", "потише", "не трепыхайся". It is synonymous with literary relax, calm down, restrain yourself. The word stoned is often used in the "одурманить наркотиками" (get stoned, get high, get wrecked); groove on – in sense "наслаждаться" (I can really groove on the Beatles - наслаждаюсь, слушая ансамбль "Битлз"); cosmic with meaning "потрясающий" (cosmic idea! - потрясающе!); out of sight - "фантастический"; goof on - "смеяться", "насмехаться над кем-либо" (Charlie"s just goofing on you - Чарли просто смеется над вами); bummer - "неудачный опыт"; shuck - "надувательский " (he"s shuck, he"s shucking - ему верить нельзя).
The word shuck is used instead of the usual word for such situations of the word phony; get it on (or get down) instead of the verb to commence - начинать (Get down to it - Давай, начинай).
The word commune for a long time was used in the British and American speech in the following meanings:
1) historical community;
2) a municipality, the lowest unit of territorial self-government (in France, Belgium, Italy and other countries);
3) The Commune - Парижская коммуна (also the Commune of Paris). American hippies now use the word to mean "группа людей, проживающих совместно за счет тех средств, которыми располагают все члены этой группы".
The word cop (short for copper - police) has a number of slang meanings, such as "украсть", "стащить"; cop it - "получить нагоняй". These meanings are widely known. However, a neologism сор out is not registered anywhere yet. The question Do you cop out? - Ты избегаешь этого? is commonly used in the particular situation, it can be heard, for example, in speech of fighters for social and civil rights.
The neologism counterculture can give a lot of trouble to the translator. The word is involuntarily perceived as consisting of two elements: counter + culture, that is, "контр культура". However, such interpretation of the word counterculture would be a mistake. In fact, in modern English in the United States, this word is synonymous with "life style", especially in mind the difference between the new style from traditional forms of American life. [9; 179]
Expression to go straight literally means "идти прямо". Recently, the expression came to be used figuratively to mean "встать на честный путь", "жить как все нормальные люди", "образумиться". The American Heritage" gives the following interpretation of this expression is to go straight (informal) = to reform after having been a criminal - "изменить свое поведение, отбыв заключение".
In further reconsideration, or, more precisely, the use of this phrase in "language" hippie, beatniks and other similar elements it has acquired a slightly different meaning: "порвать с дурной привычкой", "покончить (с наркотиками) ". (You know, he goes straight now. - Вы знаете, он "завязал")
It is extremely difficult to translate a valued word head. This word has actually hundreds of meanings. In the field of youth slang, the word head has taken a new meaning, have never been registered, "чудак", "чудаковатый", "потребитель наркотиков" (Com. acid head, pot-head – наркоман). Literature synonym is the word addict or drug-user.
Speaking of neologisms, we should also mention words like psychedelic, scene, shades, soul brother, trucking, vibes, rap. The word psychedelic is used in a speech on the new social "movement" in the United States. Representative of this "movement" is some of America's youth, which is bored bourgeois culture and is seeking a way out of the impasse, rushing, however, to the other extreme - the world of hallucinations. This word can be translated as вызывающий галлюцинации (eg, psychedelic music).
The word scene in American spoken speech is not used in the conventional sense, "сцена", but more often as "место действия", "опыт". Soul brother is literally translated as "душевный брат", "добрая душа". In fact, in the speech of the American Negro the word soul brother is usually appeared instead of the word black - черный. The word trucking (literally "перевозка на грузовиках") in colloquial speech is now used to mean "идти на своих двоих", that is, instead of general literary option take a walk (to truck = = to walk jauntily - идти развязной походкой).
On the other hand, the expression of political texts to take a walk can mean "голосовать за кандидата другой партии". There is a curious word flunkenstein which first appeared in the walls of American Colleges and Universities. When you consider that flunk - студент, исключенный за неуспеваемость,, it becomes clear that flunkenstein - is "вечный неудачник" or "студент, который постоянно проваливается на экзаменах".
Neologism street people is used in modern speech to mean "бродячая молодежь". So the United States is commonly called a hippie and all the homeless people.
The word together has a new meaning - "в хорошем расположении духа". (Например: You"re looking really together these days)
On the contrary, it has the antonym into downs "в Дурном расположении духа" (Charlie "s into downs today - Сегодня Чарли не с той ноги встал.) In the vernacular speech to off is a synonym for the verb to kill. The new synonyms are also to do a number on someone "s hear, to rip off.
From these examples, it can be concluded that many of the neologisms arise on the basis of colloquialisms and slang. Many of them, despite their initial originality, then quickly dissappear, from the speech. Such neologisms can be called "words- meteors." At the same time, the others firmly established in the popular language. Y.I. Retsker in this connection gives the following interesting data: [10; 350]
"Special addition to a dictionary " Webster "s New International Dictionary" of 1968 consists of 2,500 neologisms. If we compare the editions of 1963 and 1964 of the dictionary's Chambers, it turns out that of 2,500 neologisms in the edition in 1964 there were about 500 for the first time. It is clear that the commonly used dictionaries record only new words have entered the language. The so-called "copyright", individual neologisms do not get in dictionaries. However, this category of neologisms is rare phenomenon; very few writers have resorted to the creation of new words. "
In the era of mass communication, there is truly an unprecedented opportunity for the development and spread of neologisms. A striking proof of the language is the press of our time. Language of the American press, almost daily, enriched neologisms. Many of them, however, remain "neologisms-by-night" while the other "words-impromptus" are gradually moving the vocabulary. These, in particular, are the (now widely known), the words and phrases like:
sweat shop - предприятие, на котором существует потогонная система;
trouble shooter - уполномоченный по улаживанию конфликтов, dark horse - темная лошадка, то есть кандидат, неожиданно выдвинутый на какой-то пост в разгар предвыборной кампании;
favorite son - кандидат, выдвигаемый в президенты делегацией своего штата (на предвыборном съезде партии);
boondoggling - a word once belonged to the category of slang now is widely known in political vocabulary to mean "заниматься пустыми делами";
the term hooverize literally means "жить по Гуверу" that is, "экономить на еде", "недоедать".
Expression pork barrel once was a part of the American slang. Now, however, it is recognized political term that means "бочка с салом", "кормушка", "казенный пирог", that is specially made by the Government activities to gain popularity among the masses.
It is now quite "respectable" political term lame duck was once known only as a political slengizmy. Now the term lame duck is used in the sense of "политик-неудачник", "человек, которому не везет".
It is interesting to trace the emergence of a neologism sky marshal. This word originated in the heyday of the practice of hijacking the kidnappers, robbers (highjackers). A wave of violent seizure and hijackings in the United States gave rise to a special science of identifying "профиля потенциального угонщика" (highjacker profile determination). Respectively and there were a lot of new words and concepts associated with this field.
Neologisms lunatic fringe and a little old lady in tennis shoes are rough and emotive expressive phraseological units. These words have approximately the same meaning as the traditional political term extremist - экстремист.
This group of words can include such "winged" neologisms as
nuts and cooks - махровые реакционеры;
diehards - твердолобые;
dinosaur wing - (букв)"крыло динозавра", то есть группа людей с устарелыми взглядами;
hidebounds - лица с узким политическим кругозором;
moss-backs - ультраконсерваторы и old fogies - старые консерваторы.
Referring to the history of political neologisms, it would be interesting to trace, for example, the development of a number of political terms. The number of terms in the American political vocabulary is very much: besides the already long settled word-concepts such as political hireling - политический наймит; political drudge - работяга (о трудолюбивом работнике); stooge - политическая марионетка, there are new more and more. It is already mentioned above terms wardheeler, wheelhorse, as well as (party) hack, hanger-on, hangdog politician, hatchetman.
Unfortunately, the vocabulary has not been reflected in the current bilingual (translated) dictionaries and translator must offer their own versions of translation based on its own independent conclusions. [11;145]. Wardheeler - it is a political term with a scornful and contemptuous color, in Russian his value can be passed through such relations as the petty politician, hanger (with the boss), the term wheelhorse, is also used in speech, given that the definition which is given by this term in the explanatory dictionary of American, Russian equivalent lexical units: a hard worker, a person who carries on itself all impact.
Consequently, the terms drudge, wheelhorse are very close in meaning. Party hack is a political prostitute. Hanger-on is not difficult to translate, because the meaning is quite clear already passed by a word (compare to hang-on - цепляться) приспешник, подхалим. Hang-dog politician should translate прихлебатель, карьерист. The word hatchet-man appeared in the American political "vocabulary recently. It has a conversational tone and clearly translates политический приспешник. Sometimes, it is necessary to give a broader interpretation: "человек, следящий (по поручению босса) за соблюдением остальными членами партийной дисциплины и выполнением основных партийных решений"
From the point of view of psycholinguistic analysis of a very interesting series of political synonyms are neologisms of 60es. These are the words that represent the symbolic power or imaginary power: straw man, paper tiger, stalking horse, satellite.
General literary idiom puppet government - марионеточное правительство is known to all. At the same time, the latest neologisms in said series of synonyms can perplex even the most experienced interpreter. In fact, how to translate this political neologism as straw man (or man of straw)?
The literal meaning of it is "соломенный человек". Clearly, this is a metaphor, and therefore, it is necessary to refer the metaphorical element in Russian. Apparently, the best can be considered such options as a "straw man", "man of straw". However rethinking neologism went even further. Straw man in modern political language means "подставной (фиктивный) кандидат, выдвигаемый с целью отвлечь внимание избирателей от другого кандидата". Neologism paper tiger, as it is known, entered the Russian language for a long time. It is converted by means of tracing paper - paper tiger that is used to mean "неопасный противник".
The phrase stalking horse is very difficult to translate without knowing its scope. In the dictionary "The American Heritage" neologism stalking horse defined as follows: "any sham candidate put forward to conceal the candidacy of another or divide the opposition" ("любой "липовый" кандидат, который выдвигается для того, чтобы отвлечь внимание от другой кандидатуры или расколоть оппозицию"). Since so wordy interpretation can not be used as a transferable option, then it should be made based on at least the basic features, and then given a neologism can be translated as a dummy candidate, figureheads (in the political game).
Most recently in the political language, appeared the term off the reservation, where the neologism means ""оставаться в рядах партии, но не поддерживать кандидата, выдвинутого партией". It appears mostly in speech policies can not be known even English speakers.
The next step in the political sense (after off the reservation) will be taking a walk - "Support the candidate of the other party." And finally, the last step in this direction bolting - "transition into the ranks of the other party." This neologism is used primarily in speech, and is gradually replacing the obscheliteraturnogo version of switching to the other party. Without knowledge of the extra-linguistic situation is extremely difficult to translate a neologism nervous Nellies. According to the U.S. Sefayera (W. Safire. The New Language of Politics. N. Y - 1968, p.277. - Trans. Automatic), this expression is used the first time in his speech, U.S. President Johnson against critics of the Vietnam War: .. . some nervous Nellies and some who will become frustrated and bothered and break ranks under the strain (some easy to panic people and those who will feel troubled and difficult times can leave the battlefield). Thus, nervous Nellies should translate people, it is easy to panic. This expression came into the political language of the area slang. (Cf. nice Nelly - prude)
So what are the ways to transfer the "classic" and "one-off" neologisms should be recommended? Analysis of the translation of neologisms convinces us that the most common is a translation by selecting the corresponding analogue in another language. Unfortunately, dictionary of neologisms in Russian published extremely rare. Translator much could be learned from such dictionary.
The second way - it is a translation by transcription or transliteration. So, steel lobby as we pass the lobby steel companies. This is the most concise version. Translation-interpretation - a group of persons (who are former congressmen) that on the sidelines of the Congress of trying to put pressure on members of Congress on behalf of the owners steel companies - can hardly be considered successful.
The third way - a method of tracing. For example, street people can be translated as street people (the method of tracing) or as wanderers (analog method).
1.4 Ethnic and cultural specificity of learning a new vocabulary of the English language
Analysis of new words showed that the predominant host of new vocabulary units is, as expected, nouns, since the expansion of vocabulary is mainly due to the names of objects and events that fill the space of cultural studies.
Learning new words revealed some trends in linguistic and cultural features of the expansion of space in the period under review.
At the heart of these names may be kind of peculiar people: shareowner (a person who owns shares) - "the owner of the shares" (direct nomination speech share - share), street fighter (a tough combative person) - "bully" (shaped association with short street - street), style-counselor (an arbiter of or adviser on what is currently fashionable) - "counselor / advisor / consultant" (a direct nomination), staff-doctor (in Britain, a grade of hospital doctor between senior house officer and consultant) - "the degree of doctor at the hospital"); individualization of personality based on the intrinsic properties: scuzzyball (American slang, an unpleasant or disgusting person), shakers (influential people, spunk) (Australian informal, a devastatingly handsome young man). Associative-shaped component clearly represented among the units, calling people on the basis of its intrinsic properties (cf. scuzzy - unpleasant and dirty; shake - to get rid of; spunk - courage, spirit). Also, the name may be indicative of the impact on the person referred to as: shutout (American, a person who is excluded or prevented from succeeding).
Somatic vocabulary plays an important role in the nomination of the person. For example, the image of the serpent (snake) emphasizes movements. Fixed vocabulary phrase "snake hips" (attractively slim hips, especially in a man) indicates the possibility of the emergence of new words in the areas adequately linguistically aforesaid (names of parts of the human body).
Significantly, represented sphere in business and finance. These are words such as market-maker (a person whose business is buying shares, securities, bonds, etc. And selling them on, usually at a marginal profit), competitor-analysis (the finding out of information about the financial and other affairs of competitor companies). Terms such as "market - the market, analysis - analysis, agreement - an agreement, deal - an agreement, the transaction", connecting in complex words, form a representative layer of vocabulary in this field.
Financial vocabulary includes units silly money (money in amounts beyond most people "s experience, making possible the indiscriminate purchase of very expensive items; also funny money), balloon financing (a method of financing purchases in which the vendor lends the purchaser (part of ) the price, part of which is repayable in monthly installments but leaving a large final payment to be made to discharge the debt). economic vocabulary can also be expressed by means of emotionally expressive and figurative components (see "silly - having or showing a lack of good sense and judgement","funny - causing laughter; amusing "per unit" silly / funny money ", shaped component" balloon - a large bag of strong light material filled with gas or heated air so that it can float in the air "in one" balloon financing ").
The natural increase in medical vocabulary - new words are recorded skin tag (a small nonmalignant epidermal excrescence), SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), suicide gene (a gene possessed by certain bacteria which terminates their life). In this group stands the principle of analogy: SIDS is formed by analogy with AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. This principle can also be applied in the following neologisms: therapy - polar therapy, psychotherapy. This model is quite common and reflects the trend in the derivation of the new English vocabulary.
The field of culture in the narrow sense (music, literature, theater) is presented, for example, the words sampling (taking extracts from a variety of songs and combining them to form a new one), sit-tragedy (a radio or television drama series featuring the same basic cast of characters in stories of misfortune or conflict), slamdancing (dancing engaged in by fans of heavy metal and similar forms of rock music in which dancers jump up and down frenziedly and collide violently with each other).
In the theatrical life also has changed - there are new types of theaters, and with them new names, such as: theatre of absurd - "theater of the absurd", theatre of cruelty - "theater of cruelty", son et lumiere (Fr. = sound fnd light ) - "theater with sound and light effects", theatre of fact - "theater of fact", black theatre - "House Negro", etc. Among the neologisms related to theatrical life, you can call such nouns as revolve - "revolving stage "and theatredom – «theater world».
In the film, television and video, many new technical means behind them formed a large number of neologisms, such as: inflight movies - "movies on display in flight in an aircraft", inflight videosystem - "video system used in an aircraft", featurette - "short documentary", satellite-delivered show - "a program transmitted via satellite, etc.
Recently, new methods of teaching are indicated by the following neologisms: sleep-teaching - "training in a dream", CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory of Automated School System) - "class of programmed learning", multimedia lecture - "lecture using multiple media (VCR , TV, VCR, etc.) ", telelecture, telecourse -" training program on television, "etc. Basically, the neologisms of the group, formed by acronyms that reflects the nature of the terminology in this field. It is also necessary to note the use of the prefix tele - (some experts it is recognized as poluprefiks).
There are new types of educational institutions, such as: megaversity - "a major university where trained many thousands of students", multiversity - "university with a lot of faculties", para-university - "University volunteer (a free program)", para- school - "School on a voluntary basis."
The use of the prefix mega-, multi-, para - reflects the trend of integration in education, along with the use of the word-formation process as a "mixing" (blending): megaversity [mega + university] - "a major university where students are taught many thousands", multiversity [multi + university] - "university with a lot of departments." The use of these affixes enhances the emotional and expressive effect, pointing to the significance of the changes taking place in the country.
Instead, the terms student, pupil became increasingly used term educatee, schooler; coined the term educationalist - "Specialist (theoretician or practitioner) in the field of education." These words indicate the emergence of a new level in the relationship between students and teachers, as well as a fundamentally new stage in the understanding of the process of education (sr.educatee - the man who taught; schooler - a man who goes to school). Joining suffixes ee - and er-, denoting people who perform an action to the keywords related to the field, - a vivid example confirm this.
Among the new units there is a group of words, it is the behavior of people engaged in various activities, such as: skippering (domestic sphere) (slang; the practice of taking over a deserted dwelling to live in it without permission or payment squatting), squiffing (postage ) (British slang, the practice of postal workers reposting mail that is ready for delivery). The structure of many of these units include emotional and expressive Seme (eg, spree - a bout of violent activity [violent - uncontrollably fierce]), movers and shakers - people of power and influence [power - control over others; influence; influence - the power to have an effect on someone or something without the use of direct force or command]).
New units have enriched the vocabulary of computer language - superminicomputer (an advanced powerful minicomputer), supersmart card (a smart card with a key board and display panel).
Computerization is used in various fields of science and technology, leading to a large number of terminological neologisms. For example, in linguistics: interlingual - "artificial language for machine translation into several languages", in biometrics, in particular to denote biometric protection from thieves: biometric locks - "biometric locks."
The group of words denoting the commodities unit includes: scaf (American informal) self-centered-altruism fad - a currently-popular product (for example a garment or cosmetic) which as well as being attractive purports to have a beneficial effect on the user , shin-sock - a sock that reaches approximately halfway up the calf; names of food - snack pellet (a convenience food in the form of an extruded and shaped mass of edible matter), drinks - super-second (a claret from the Medoc or Graves region which is officially in the second category of excellence, but is generally recognized as being superior to this).
Expanded group of words indicating the location, such as: skip-park (an area with skips for the deposit of various sorts of refuse), snail-park (an establishment where edible snails are commercially reared), solar pond (an artificially constructed pool of salty water designed to collect the sun "s heat for conversion to electricity). typical for the use of the English language keywords (in this case, directly indicating the location - park (park), pond (pond)) and the use of difficult words can form words with emotional, expressive and imaginative semami associated with this location: skip, snail, solar.
Sport enriched vocabulary words like: short tennis (a version of tennis for young children, played on a short court with small rackets and a low net), spectator catch (in cricket, a catch which to spectators appears to be a legitimate dismissal of the batsman but is not, for example, when the ball has hit the pad rather than the bat, or bounces up after being hit into the ground).
Individual words are types of movement: slo-mo or slowmo (informal, slowed-down action on film or videotape) and Accessories: slipmat (a circular piece of thin rubber placed on a turntable to prevent records from slipping), the new name of the ferry - streaker (a fast, highly maneuverable ferry operating on the River Clyde). In the language of the word arose "seajack" (the hijacking of a ship at sea), by analogy with the existing "hijack".
Thus, on the one hand, recently observed in the language use of multiple ways to form a new vocabulary (affixation, compounding, blending, abbreviation, conversion) reflecting semantic and word-formation processes in the language during this period. On the other hand, the formation of semantic neologism is the result of lingvokreativnoy nominator, coupled with extralinguistic knowledge and discourse, with the transition of a new unit of a particular individual consumption in the use of language community.
Euphemistic neologisms are an integral part of the vocabulary of any language. This layer of vocabulary is considered as a kind of allegory to bringing its distinctive features used by explicit text and language as a way of political correctness, reflecting the trend of using veiled or mitigate the problem of vocabulary in thematic areas such as racism, sexism, religion, political and economic stability, etc.
A large group of euphemisms designed on the principle of comity. It typically includes words and phrases that mitigate different types of discrimination [12; 7]
euphemisms mitigating age discrimination (middlescence - the period of life between 40 and 65 years; senior, mature, seasoned, distinguished, gracious (of a woman) - old);
euphemisms, softening the estate discrimination (the neediest, the needy, the ill-provided, the socially deprived, the underprivileged, the disadvantaged, low-income people - the poor);
euphemisms, the non-discrimination of people with disabilities (differently abled, physically different, individuals with disabilities or handicapable - a cripple; big-boned, differently sized, husky or full-figured - thick; hair-disadvantaged - bald; sane, mentally unbalanced (deficient), unhinged, deranged, crazy, retarted, lunatic, wrong in the head, not all there, off one "s head, off one" s rocker - mentally ill; a bit wanting in the top storey, half-wilted, half-baked, nut, nutty, batty, barmy, dotty, having bats, in one "s belfry, crazy as a bedbug - crazy, crazy);
euphemisms mitigating racial and ethnic discrimination (African-American, member of African Diaspora, person of black race - the representative of the Negro population of the United States; Jewish person - Jew);
euphemisms, mitigating gender discrimination, in particular female gender (camera operator - cameraman; firefighter - fireman; police officer - policeman; chairman - chairperson; stewardess - flight attendant).
Theme Group euphemisms that reduce superstitious fear of any phenomena (the principle of taboo), includes phenomena of death. It is in this group, the most taboo is representative principle. For example, moonchild (person born under the sign of Cancer) has replaced the word cancer, is associated with the disease; hospice, originally denoting a guest house for the poor, the sick (shelter, hotel), is now a hospital for the terminally ill or institution for the care of dying people.
It should be noted that in English, the theme of death verbalized only by euphemisms. For example, the verb to die (die) can be replaced with a huge amount of literature and books of synonyms to decease (die) or paraphrase to pass away (go to the other world), and also to go West (go to the West), to depart ( sail), to breathe one "s last (breathe for the last time), to join the silent / the majority (join the majority), to be no more (do not be), to lose one" s life (losing a life) to expire (due to expire on the expiration date), to go behind the eternal cloud (go to eternal heaven), to pay one "s debt to nature (to give back to nature), to go to kingdom (to go into the kingdom), to sleep the sleep that knows no waking (sleep soundly), to go the way of all flesh (to adhere to all mortals). Along with them in the language has reduced crudely humorous expressions like to kick the bucket, to count daises, to pop one "s clogs, to give up the ghost, to kick off, to check out, to take a ride, to hop the twig (to kick the bucket, drop the skates, kick the bucket).
The phrase if anything should happen to me in the sense of if I die (when I die) has become familiar in recent announcements of insurance companies.
In modern English, there are many euphemisms, replacing the concept of God or the devil.
God (God) - Dad, Gad, God-a-mighty, Gol, Goramighty, Gord, Gorra, Garry, Gosh, Gott, Gar, Gawd, Gawsh, God Almighty, Gum, Gub, Gun, Lord, Law, Lawd, Laws, Lor, Lordy, Lorsy.
Devil (Satan, Satan) - father of lies, the gentleman in black, the God of this world, our ghostly enemy, the Prince of Darkness, Old enemy / lad / Poker / gooseberry / Bendy / lain / deuce / dickens / Harry / Henry / Ned / One / Dragon / Scratch / Boy.
For the word Hell, the following euphemisms (hell, the kingdom of the devil): Blazes, Hail Columbia, Halifax, hallelujah, heck, HEdoubleL, Himmel, Hoboken, hot place, something.
In euphemistic vocabulary of the past decades has increased markedly the tendency to form new units, raising the prestige of certain professions (eg, hairstylist or beautician - hairdresser; morticians, funeral directors - serving the cemetery; sanitation engineer - garbage collector; environmental hygienist - janitor; footwear engineer - bootblack ; glass maintenance engineer - a window cleaner).
Theme Group euphemisms, distracting from the negative phenomena of reality (the principle of the regulatory impact on the audience and the principle of secrecy), it is appropriate to divide into two groups: [13; 289]
euphemisms, undercover officers aggressive military action (crime, drug abuse, aggressive policy): involvement - aggression; conflict - war; device - a bomb; limited air strike / air support - bombing; training bases - military bases;
euphemisms associated with adverse effects in the socio-economic sphere: reserve of labor force - unemployment; culturally different children - children in slums; downsizing, rightsizing - dismissal.
By "Neogene" areas over the past decade include:
undesirable aspects of the business and business relationships;
Indirect name drugs;
layoffs and reductions in work;
Indirect naming of death (natural and forced);
Indirect naming intimate relationship between a man and a woman;
the current understanding of discrimination associated with taboo new generation - the color of the skin.
So, in the last decade, most of the euphemisms does not occur in the traditional taboos, and in the business relationships between people, which may be related to the commercialization of life principles and values of human society in general and the English-speaking community in particular.
Based on the above, in this chapter we have come to the conclusion that the neologism (neo + Greek. Logos word) - a new word, linguistic innovation (figure of speech), the grammatical feature, which appears in the language.
A large number of new lexical units appeared in connection with the development of computer technology. New semantic group of neologisms are related to the alleged visits to earth by aliens from outer space.
In the field of fine arts there is a rapid process of experimentation, and new manners of painting paintings and other art works.
In the theatrical life also changes - new types of theaters, and with them new names.
It is interesting to note that in the 70-ies. members of the feminist movement have declared English sexist language, ie, language, discriminatory female sex, since it contains more forms of masculine than feminine (usually because of the word man as a second component of the names of many trades).
An important aspect of the life of society is the sphere of education. In the UK in 1988 was issued a new education law, known as Gerbil (Great Education Reform Bill). Due to this law, there are many neologisms.
Neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books are sometimes created neologisms and unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes more clear, vivid, tangible. Most funds formation of new words so often act as a stylistic device.
The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in the language of English writers are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words.
In this chapter, we especially consider translation of neologisms.
Analysis of new words showed that the predominant host of new vocabulary units is, as expected, nouns, since the expansion of vocabulary is mainly due to the names of objects and events that fill the space of cultural studies.
Learning new words revealed some trends in linguistic and cultural features of the expansion of space in the period under review.
For the last decades the formation of euphemisms has been taken place according to the typical for English language models. It is first of all the semantical displacements among which the narrowing of meaning according to its wide spread takes the first place, that is the usage of words or word combinations of wide semantic and polysemantical in much narrower meaning. For example: "amateur" in the meaning of "an unprofessional politician", "golden age" instead of "old age", "newsreader" in the mean of the "reader of the latest news on the TV or internet". Euphemisms-neologisms functioning in different subject - conceptual spheres where the moral factors of tabu and euphemistic replacement act and they are formed with the help of all typical for English language semantical and formal means. Having looked at different models of the formation of the semantical neologisms it is possible to make certain conclusion. Semantical transfers serve as the means of strengthening of expression of the vocabulary at the expense of new formed more expressed lexical units - synonyms to already existent neutral words. The amount of neologisms on different topical groups depends on the development intensity of the corresponding kinds of people's activity and on the degree of changes in the way of life of the society. It is worth mentioning that for the last time it gets more complicated to separate exactly terminological and current vocabulary as the wide usage of everyday technique is followed by the penetration of the great amount of the technical words in the everyday vocabulary. Popular-science TV-programs and articles of media also help the appearance of diffusion of words into the everyday colloquial speech. In general, according to the laws of language development there exist mechanisms which regulate the addition and anewing of the vocabulary thanks to the semantical innovations, supporting them in corresponding activity. Some of the new meanings of the old words become an integral part of the language, the others can find the resistance in the language usage.
2 Translation features of neologisms in the modern vocabulary
2.1 Means of translation of modern neologisms
In the practice of translation work a prominent place occupied by the problem of transfer of economic neologisms.
Denominative education naturally became part of the language and vocabulary is indicated under the corresponding verbal droppings, for example: plan (v) to make a plan, schedule ship (v) ship, to land.
The conversion of these verbs is not difficult. However, be aware that this method of forming a verb from a noun is productive in modern English and serves as one of the sources of the appearance of neologisms. The authors often resort to it, using a variety of nouns and verbs are creating a completely new, which we do not find in the dictionary. [14;14] The value of such denominative tumors can be properly understood only in context by comparing the value of the original noun.
For example:
The delegates were planed to the conference last night.
The verb is formed from the noun planed plane -самолет.
Appointment of passenger aircraft is to transport people. On this basis we translate this sentence:
Yesterday evening, delegates were sent to the conference by plane.
another example:
The trunks were tractored to the river bank to be floated then downstream. Purpose of the tractor - towing carts and trunks of trees, hence the translation suggestions:
Tree trunks were towed tractor to the river bank in order to then float them down the river.
More examples:
The river is bridged in two places. On the river there are two bridges.
The rioters were machine-gunned by the police.
Police fired on the rioters with a machine gun.
Often such formations from nouns, decorated suffix - ed, used in the function definition.
There are several multi-storeyed buildings in Moscow.
In Moscow, there are several high-rise buildings.
We saw a two-funelled steamer.
We saw the Twin-ship.
The problem of correct understanding and translation of neologisms connected with the fact that in today's fast paced development of science and technology is no dictionary is not able to keep up with the emergence of new words and terms in different fields of knowledge.
So if the text includes a neologism that is not in the dictionary, translator's responsibility to determine its value, given the derivation of the word, and based on the context, for example:
Jet propelled planes consume enormous quantities of propellant.
In this sentence, we find a new word propellant, which is not in the general dictionary and the value which you want to install.
Separating the word suffix - ant and find the original shape propel (dropping the second letter 1).
We seek to propel the dictionary meaning of the word as a verb - "to push forward, to drive the move."
Given that the suffix - ant forms a noun from a verb, determine the approximate value of the word propellant: "that sets in motion."
Based on the context, we select the most appropriate setting: fuel. After this, we translate the entire sentence:
Jets absorb huge amounts of fuel.
If the neologism is a common word, but the use of a special terminological sense, then, obviously, the only way to establish its value is the reliance on the context, the total content of the translated text.
For example, in the sentence:
This proved to be an Arab film, but as it was dubbed into English we were able to enjoy the smartness and vividity of its dialogues.
we meet a neologism dubbed, the value of which - "dub" - easy to install out of context, and then offers a translation is straightforward:
The film, which was Arabic, but as he was dubbed into English, we were able to enjoy the wit and vivacity of his dialogues.
Meaning Denominative verbs, as indicated above, should be derived from the initial value nouns with special orientation on context. [15;34] In translating neologisms-borrowing principal means of disclosure of the word is the context and, of course, a dictionary of the language from which the word is borrowed.
Based on the definition of the term "neologism" it can be assumed that the translator for the first time actually meeting the neologism, of course has no idea about the concept indicated by them. Therefore, the value of neologism has to figure most often out of context.
In the translation of context is usually quite informative.
In the process of translating the word usually distinguish two phases:
1. Clarification of the meaning of a word in context;
2. Transfer this value means TL.
In the event of a transfer of neologism first stage is crucial, and the latter is only a purely technical issue, although it is important to decide the most appropriate methods for TL.
Within the context of the general concept differs narrow context (microcontext) and the broader context (macrocontext). Under the narrow context refers to the context of the sentence, ie the linguistic units that make up the environment of the unit, not going beyond the scope of the proposal; larger context - a set of linguistic units surrounding a given unit within which lie outside of the proposal.
The exact scope of the broader context can not be specified - it could be the context of sentences, paragraphs, chapters or the whole work (story, article or novel) as a whole. It is important for clarifying the significance of neologisms to take into account both the time macrocontext, as it it may contain "help". The narrow context, in turn, can be divided into lexical and syntactic context.
Syntactic context - this is the syntax, which is used in the word, phrase, or (clause) offer.
Lexical context - a set of specific lexical items, words and phrases, surrounded contain this unit. Accounting syntactic context will allow the interpreter to determine the identity of neologism to one of the parts of speech, but in clarifying the importance of neologism is crucial consideration is the lexical context.
New words usually occur on the basis of already existing in the language of words and morphemes.
Analysis of these words and morphemes can have a translator of great assistance in understanding the value of neologism. This requires good knowledge of word formation processes in English, such as: giving an existing word of another value. [16;234]
For example, the word call in English is called, calling, call call, call, phone call, etc. However, with the development of the exchange business is not so long ago, he got a new value, fixed in dictionaries as a call, a call option (ie, the right to buy for a certain period of securities at a price due to the pre-payment of premiums), and with the development of banking - a requirement of the bank to the borrower for early repayment of the loan in relation to the violation of its terms.
compounding.
One of the most ancient, universal and common methods of derivation in the English language are the word composition, has not lost its activity and at this time: more than one-third of all tumors in the modern English language - complex words.
The process of compounding is the juxtaposition of the two bases, usually homonymous word forms. For example, carryback - transfer of losses to an earlier period, citiplus - hedging instruments, the proposed bank customers "Citibank" (USA), etc.
Since the norms of the modern English language allows a combination of words that have the same lexical and grammatical features that are connected by compounding basis, then determine in which cases the translator has to deal with a difficult word, a neologism, and in which - with the phrase, it is quite difficult.
Compare closing bank - the bank, completing the deal, which was attended by several banks and closing bank - the bank closing.
Currently, there is a number of criteria for distinguishing compound words and phrases. When translating neologisms in English texts deserves special attention spelling test, the essence of which is to consider all of the complex written one word or hyphenated as a compound word, and the complex, whose components are written separately, as the phrase:
dividend-right certificate - certificate of entitlement to the dividend;
dear-money policy - the credit crunch by raising interest rates;
fill-or-kill order - an order the customer to the agent to be immediately executed or canceled.
When connecting words ending and beginning with the same vowel or consonant, one of them falls:
net + etiquette = netiquette - the unwritten customary rules of communication or posting on the Internet. However, it should be noted that this is not the rule:
Some sections of the American press are upping the case still further by using an even more emotive term "cyberrape", to describe the actions of Jake Baker, a 20-year-old American student.
Some American edition add fuel to the fire, using more emotionally laden term "cyber-rape" for the actions of twenty American student Jake Baker.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that in many cases there is inconsistency in the writing of even one and the same complex.
For example, in the case of man-made - an artificial, man-made, 6% - separate writing, 82% - with a hyphen, 12% - fused spelling.
Analysis of the components that make up a compound word, the translator gives the opportunity, knowing their lexical meaning, find out the value of the entire complex:
Graphite bombing caused power lines destruction turning off life-supports in Belgrade hospitals.
As we can see life-supports neologism composed of two parts: life (life) and support (support), then we are talking about something that can sustain life or vitality, and the suffix - s indicates that we are dealing with a countable noun in the plural form.
Thus, taking into account the context, this neologism can be translated as "life-support equipment." During the bombing of graphite bombs have been damaged power line, which was the reason for the disconnection of life support equipment in hospitals in Belgrade.
education forms by analogy with already existing in the language by adding to them a variety of productive affixes.
For a correct understanding of the meaning of neologisms formed in this way the interpreter needs to know the productive affixes in modern English language and be able to correctly divide the word into components: kiteflyer - recipient of money under fictitious bill, the user fictitious bills.
Very often, when a similar method of forming neologisms have a satirical painting, especially in the press ... that they taste the same in Peking as they do in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald "s.
In this case, the author wishes to draw attention to the significant development of a chain of restaurants, «McDonald’s» fast food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena, and like other economic laws is equally valid in different countries:
... that in Beijing they taste the same as in London or New York, that's it, "McDonald's" created a world gamburgernomiku.
conversion.
Conversion is called a functional transition words from one part of speech the other, ie use the same words as various parts of speech.
For example, now the Internet can often be seen E-mail me / us to ... Clarifying the value of this neologism is easy.
Syntactic context makes it possible to determine the membership of the words to transitive verbs, and knowing the meaning of the word E-mail (electronic mail) translate: Please send an e-mail to ...
borrowing from other languages.
Then his telefonino rang, or rather squeaked piercingly ... It is impossible to get away from the wretched telefonino wherever you are in Italy. Of all the countries in Europe, only Britain has more mobile telephones. Then the phone rang, or rather shrill squeak of his mini-phone. No matter what part of Italy you are, you can not get away from those pesky telefonino. Of all European countries, mobile phones are more in the UK.
The Soviets had Sputnik, but the Americans had their open-plan kitchen. No contest.
The Soviet Union created the "Satellite", and the Americans have created an open kitchen. Out of competition.
reverse derivation.
Contact derivation is the process of formation of verbs by truncating the suffix of correlative nouns such televise - televise from television channels.
symphysis.
Fusion - the connection or a truncated root of one word to a whole word or a combination of two truncated roots:
forex reserve (forex = foreign + exchange) - резервы в иностранной валюте;
impex transactions (impex = import + export) - экспортно-импортные сделки.
abbreviation.
Among the existing types of word-formation process deserve special attention partly abbreviated acronyms, the essence of which is the acronym of one of the components, eg, B-unit (Barclays currency unit) international currency bank "Barclays Bank international", Fed Wire - email system Communication Federal Reserve Banks (USA). Dixi.
2.2 Translating difficulties of neologisms in the modern vocabulary
In the era of mass communication, there is truly an unprecedented opportunity for the development and spread of neologisms. A striking proof of the language of the press is our time. Language of the American press, almost daily enriched neologisms. Many of them, however, remain "neologisms-by-night" while the other "word-Impromptu" is gradually moving the vocabulary. This, in particular, are the (now widely known), the words and phrases like:
sweat shop - sweatshop;
trouble shooter - Commissioner for conflict management,
dark horse - a dark horse candidate that is surprisingly nominated for a post in the midst of the election campaign;
favorite son - the candidate nominated for president by the delegation of its staff (at an election party congress);
boondoggling - a word once belonged to the category of slang is now widely known in political parlance to mean "engage in empty cases";
hooverize term literally means "to live according to Hoover," that is, "to save on food," "malnourished".
Expression of pork barrel once was part of the American slang. Now, however, it is recognized political term that means "a barrel of lard", "manger", "pork barrel" that is specially made by the Government activities to gain popularity among the masses.
It is now quite "respectable" political term lame duck was once known only as a political slengizmy. Now the term lame duck is used in the sense of "policy-loser," "a person who does not carry."
It is interesting to trace the emergence of a neologism sky marshal. This word originated in the heyday of the practice of hijacking the kidnappers, robbers (highjackers). A wave of violent seizure and hijackings in the United States gave rise to a special science of discernment n 'profile of a potential hijacker "(highjacker profile determination). Respectively and there were a lot of new words and concepts associated with this area.
Neologisms lunatic fringe and a little old lady in tennis shoes are rough and emotive expressive phraseological units. These words have approximately the same value as the traditional political term extremist - extremist.
This group should include such words "winged" neologisms as
nuts and cooks - terry reactionaries;
diehards - stubborn;
dinosaur wing - (letters) "wing of the dinosaur," that there is a group of people sustarelymi views;
hidebounds - people with narrow political outlook;
moss-backs - and the ultra-conservatives
old fogies - old conservatives.
Referring to the history of political neologisms, it would be interesting to trace, for example, the development of a number of political terms. The number of terms in the American political vocabulary is very much: besides the already long settled word-concepts such as political hireling - a political hireling; political drudge - hard worker (a hardworking employee); stooge - a political puppet, there are more and more. It is already mentioned above terms wardheeler, wheelhorse, as well as (party) hack, hanger-on, hangdog politician, hatchetman. Unfortunately, the vocabulary has not been reflected in the current bilingual (translated) dictionaries and translator must offer their own versions of translation based on its own independent conclusions.
Wardheeler - it is a political term with a scornful and contemptuous color, in Russian his value can be passed through such relations as the petty politician, hanger (with the boss), the term wheelhorse, is also used in speech, given the definition that is given to that term in American monolingual dictionaries, Russian equivalent lexical units: a hard worker, a person who carries on itself all impact. Consequently, the terms drudge, wheelhorse very close in value. Party hack - a political prostitute. Hanger-on is not difficult to translate, because the meaning is quite clear already passed by a word (compare to hang-on - cling) henchman, sycophant. Hang-dog politician should translate hanger, careerist. The word hatchet-man appeared in the American political "vocabulary recently. It has a conversational tone and clearly translates to political henchman. Sometimes it is necessary to give a broader interpretation of" person tracking (on behalf of the boss) compliance with other members of the party discipline and the implementation of major party solutions. "
From the point of view of psycholinguistic analysis of a very interesting series of political synonyms are neologisms 60s. These are the words that represent the symbolic power or imaginary power: straw man, paper tiger, stalking horse, satellite.
Obscheliteraturnogo idiom puppet government - a puppet government is known to all. At the same time, the latest neologisms in said series of synonyms can perplex even the most experienced interpreter. In fact, how to translate this political neologism as straw man (or man of straw)? The literal meaning of it is "straw man." Clearly, this is a metaphor, and therefore, it is necessary to refer the metaphorical element in Russian. Apparently, the best can be considered such options as a "straw man", "man of straw". However rethinking neologism went even further. Straw man in modern political language means "dummy (fake) candidate nominated to distract voters from the other candidate." Neologism paper tiger, as it is known, entered the Russian language for a long time. It is converted by means of tracing paper - paper tiger that is used to mean "paper tiger." The phrase stalking horse is very difficult to translate without knowing its scope. In the dictionary "The American Heritage" stalking horse neologism defined as follows: "any sham candidate put forward to conceal the candidacy of another or divide the opposition" ("any" sham "candidate, which extends to divert attention from the other candidates or split the opposition ") Since so wordy interpretation can not be used as a transferable option, then it should be made based on at least the basic features, and then given a neologism can be translated as a dummy candidate, figureheads (in the political game).
Most recently appeared in the political language, the term off the reservation, where the neologism meaning "to remain in the party, but not to support the candidate nominated by the party." It appears mostly in speech policies can not be known even English speakers.
The next step in the political sense (after off the reservation) will be taking a walk - "Support the candidate of the other party." And finally, the last step in this direction bolting is "transition into the ranks of the other party." This neologism is used primarily in speech, and is gradually replacing the obscheliteraturnogo version of switching to the other party. Without knowledge of the extra-linguistic situation is extremely difficult, to translate a neologism nervous Nellies.
2.3 Translation features of neologisms in modern texts
We analyzed texts on economics and management. Let's look at each transformation of each species separately, we found in these texts.
2.3.1 Lexical transformation
Lexical transformations describe the formal and substantial relationship between the words and phrases in the original and in translation. Among the formal change the basic techniques of interpretation are transcription translation/ transliteration and translation tracing.
As the Russian equivalent of the term is taken, the form of which is not related to the shape of the English term: white collar workers - служащие, Chancellor of the Exchequer - служащие, residence qualification- ценз оседлости.
We like nuclear power as much as anyone else on the right. But friends don "t let friends get hooked on subsidies. - Мы больше всех любим ядерную энергию. Но друзья не позволяют друзьям цепляться за субсидии.
Transcription
Acceptance of transcription indicates that the translation is reproduced sound of the word original. This technique is widely used in the translation of proper names, place names, company names, publications, many neologisms, etc.
Automation is one of the ways to increase production - Автоматизация - один из способов повысить производительность (повышения производительности).
Of course, just because Bladex once drove into the ditch doesn "t mean that it will forever after remain on the straight and narrow - Конечно, только потому, что Bladex однажды разорился, вовсе не значит, что это навсегда
Transliteration
Admission transliteration means that the translation is transferred graphic form of the original word.
Much greater economic tasks were seen to lie ahead. - - Предстояли значительно более важные экономические задачи.
The Finnish plant was built on 60-year purchase contracts signed by electricity buyers, by a firm (the French Areva) that scarcely seems to be making good money on the deal. - Финская установка была построена согласно контракту на 60 лет, подписанный покупателями электричества, фирмой (французской Areva) и, кажется, приносит хороший доход
Transliteration
Admission transliteration means that the translation is transferred graphic form of the original word.Much greater economic tasks were seen to lie ahead. - Предстояли значительно более важные экономические задачи.
The Finnish plant was built on 60-year purchase contracts signed by electricity buyers, by a firm (the French Areva) that scarcely seems to be making good money on the deal. - Финская установка была построена согласно контракту на 60 лет, подписанный покупателями электричества, фирмой (французской Areva) и, кажется, приносит хороший доход.
Tracing
Acceptance of transfer of the constituent elements of words or phrases, and then combining the translated parts into a whole.
superpower = superpower
International Monetary Fund = International Monetary Fund
In this case, the translation can change the order of the components.
United Nations Organisation = Organization of the United Nations
first-strike weapon = first-strike weapons
There are mixed cases, when tracing at one part of the word translated and another - transcribed.
petrodollars = petrodollars
Present plans are for the Prime Minister to make a statement in the first part of next week. - В настоящий момент планы состоят в том, чтобы премьер-министр выступил с заявлением до следующей среды (не позже чем в следующую среду).
While the offer would have handed Semler a small profit, he felt it was a low-ball by as much as $10 a share, compared with what cell firms were trading for on the Continent. - В то время, как предложение обеспечило бы Семлеру маленькую прибыль, он чувствовал, что это очень низкий процент по сравнению с тем, что фирмы имели на Континенте.
The next groups of lexical transformations are lexical and semantic change, the use of which is associated with a modification of the values of lexical units. The main techniques of this group include specification, generalization, and modulation.
Purchasing power
Acceptance of semantic specification is that the translator chooses to translate the original word with a specific meaning in the target language.
The settlement may be considered to be of primary importance to the industries concerned. - Можно считать, что это решение (урегулирование) имеет решающее значение для тех отраслей промышленности, которых оно касается.
The sellers offered the buyers 5,000 tons of oil, delivery to be made in October. Поставщики предложили покупателям 5.000 тонн нефти, причем поставка должна быть произведена в октябре.
In August 2005, shortly before minority shareholders were set to get bought out, Semler asked TIM Hellas" TPG-Apax-controlled board to appoint an independent fairness committee to assess the price. - В августе 2005 года, были созваны акционеры, чтобы выкупить акции, Семлер попросил, чтобы назначили независимый комитет справедливости для определения истинной цены.
After all, it had gotten a fairness opinion from what it described as "independent investment bank" Morgan Stanley-a firm that had earned $40 million from Texas Pacific and Арах the previous two years. - В конце концов, это привело к справедливому мнению, о том, что это "независимый инвестиционный банк" фирмы Моргана Станлей, которая заработала 40 миллионов в предыдущие два года.
As its name implies, the reception of generalization involves the replacement of a unit of Linguistics, which has a narrower meaning, the unit of AEs with a broader meaning.
This is easily illustrated by the widespread word performance. New BARS determines the value of this noun as follows:
1). performance,
2). presentation, a play,
3). work (the machine).
Often, however, when translated to English to Russian none of these values is used.
The awful performance of state-owned enterprises and the growing potential of a financial disaster are surely the Achilles "heel of what is called China" s "primary stage of socialism".
When translating, as can be seen, none of the definitions, giving New Leopard is not suitable. Translation intuition is quite suitable option "state": "Terrible state of public companies ...". Another example from the same article: China "s extraordinary growth performance ... has been nothing short of remarkable." In this example, an option may offer a "performance": "The amazing economic growth of China ...". When using this option translator starts from situational surrounding the phrase "economic growth." Obviously, the noun, delivered in connection with the relation of subordination this phrase must be somehow associated with the numbers.
Another 1.5mln are town and village owned enterprises that have been the core of Chinese performance.
In the analysis of proposals translator determines that it is about some big concept. Therefore, as a variant of "economy", "... which became the core of the Chinese economy." Another example: "In addition economic performance is supposedly replacing the goal of simply meeting production targets regardless of the cost or consumer demand." Value "indicators" as becomes clear in the analysis of the proposals are not appropriate. Possible to use the value of "economic growth" or "economic development", then: "In addition, the possible economic development issues came to the fore ...". Finally, another example of this article.
"Their (of state-owned enterprises) poor performance translates into protectionism, limits to competition etc."
In this example, the value of "dire state", "low performance", etc., are proposed in the above examples can be summed up in one word "unprofitable", "of unprofitable state enterprises leads to protectionism ...".
The same way, has never been used the value suggested by the Anglo-Russian dictionary. Perhaps for the development of translation intuition must pay more attention to work with dictionaries, which, at least, do not give a clear version of the translation, and therefore the choice and the search option is for the translator.
Modulation or semantic development
Modulation or the semantic development is called the substitution of one word or phrase DICE unit of PCOS, the value of which is logically deduced from the value of the original unit. The most common values are correlated segments in the source and target are associated with the cause-and-effect relationship.
Import from the U. S. declined about 14 per cent in value. as compared with the like period in 1957... Considering the increase in import prices the volume decrease wa5 considerably greater. - Импорт из США уменьшился в денежном выражении примерно на 14% по сравнению с тем же периодом 1957 года. Если учесть (учитывая) увеличение импортных цен, то можно сказать, что уменьшение его объема было значительно большим.
It is good that the Government should have recognize the opportunity and the obligations so clearly. Можно только приветствовать (весьма хорошо), что правительство так ясно осознало (наличие) возможности и свои обязательства.
Grammatical transformation
Now look at some grammatical transformations. Among the most common methods are the literal translation, the division offers, union proposals and grammatical change.
Over 60,000 drivers were on strike yesterday. Men at York and Portsmouth joined the strike, while at Edinburgh there was a return to work. Вчера забастовало более 60 тыс. водителей машин. Рабочие в Йорке и Портсмуте присоединились к забастовщикам, в то время как в Эдинбурге рабочие вновь приступили к работе (вернулись на работу). While the negotiation has been protracted, there is no evidence that a deadlock has been reached. - Хотя переговоры затянулись, нет оснований считать, что они зашли в тупик.
Syntax assimilation (literal translation)
The literal translation (no transformation) - a way of translation, in which syntactic structure is replaced by a similar structure FL TL.
Difficult as the task was, they set a time-limit for its fulfilment. - Как ни трудна была эта задача (хотя эта задача была очень трудной), они установили срок для ее выполнения.
Admission is simple enough, but deserves a mention for two reasons. First, because it should be emphasized "legitimacy" of its application: from novice translators sometimes found desire to change the syntactic structure, even where the best choice would be a literal translation. Second, we must clearly distinguish this method already known to us from a literal translation, which also passes the original "word for word", but it distorts its meaning or violates the rules of the target language.
Up to the present, international agreements on the prices of certain major products have scarcely modified the situation since prices are always dictated by the big industrial powers. Вплоть до настоящего времени международные соглашения о ценах на некоторые основные продукты вряд ли изменили положение дел, поскольку цены всегда определяются (диктуются) великими промышленными державами.
The division offers
Admission division of the sentence, as is its name says, is that one of the original proposal is divided into two or three sentences in the translation.
This is one of the many stories circulating at the foreign ministry in Paris where is 53-year old Dr. Abdul Kizzak is based and who, it is claimed, is thriving on his reputation as one of Europe"s most hated man" - Это одна из многих историй, циркулирующих в Министерстве иностранных дел в Париже, где обосновался 53-летний доктор Абдул Киззак, который, как утверждают, пользуется славой самого ненавистного человека в Европе. .
There are two things that a money management firm can do when it finds itself in this predicament. - Есть две вещи, которые может сделать фирма, оказывающаяся в таком затруднительном положении, чтобы управлять деньгами.
Grammatical change
In many cases, the transition from the original to the translation provided by various grammatical changes, which implies a rejection of the use of the translation of similar grammatical forms. Replacement may be a grammatical category, part of speech, a member of the proposals offer a specific type. Grammatical change - this is the most common type of translational transformations.
Replacement of word forms are often dependent on differences in the grammatical structure of the language. Category of nouns is available in both English and in Russian. However, the use of nouns in singular and plural, there are quite significant differences both in terms of countable and uncountable nouns. This fact leads to grammatical transformations in translation, in particular - replace the English plural noun singular Russian and vice versa.
The shape of things to come is shown by the data obtained by the experts. - О характере предстоящих событий можно судить по данным, полученным специалистами (экспертами).
It lagged, badly - Он ужасно отставал
There are many cases when a singular form in the Russian language corresponds to the plural form in English, and vice versa.
The preliminary talks are not expected to last more than two weeks. - Ожидается, что предварительные переговоры продлятся не больше двух недель.
Replacement of parts of speech. A very common type of grammatical change in translation is the replacement of parts of speech. In this paper, most often a verb undergoes morphological transformation, changing which when translated into Russian language is a verbal noun.
For example, the English term economic dollar export does not mean the export of dollars, as might be inferred from the values of its components, but something almost the opposite: the export of goods to the dollar zone, which aims to increase the flow of dollars to the United Kingdom [31, 259]. Thus, it is not on the export of dollars, but rather on their imports.
The workers demands were for a cost-of-living raise, shorter hours and improved safety conditions.
Replacement of the sentence. Replacement of the sentence leads to a restructuring of its syntactic structure.
A significant change in the syntactic structure is associated with the replacement of the main parts of the sentence, especially the subject. In the Anglo-Russian translations of the use of such replacements is largely due to the fact that in English more often than in Russian, the subject performs other functions, rather than refer to the subject of the action, for example, the object of the action (subject replaced with supplement).
Lexical and grammatical
A special group of translational transformations are methods of translation, by which is converted and vocabulary, syntax and structure of the original. The most common lexical and grammatical transformations are welcome antonymic translation, reception descriptive translation and reception of compensation.
antonymic translation
When antonymic translation replacement affirmative form in the original negative form in translation or, conversely, negative to affirmative accompanied by the replacement of a lexical unit DICE per unit AEs with the opposite meaning:
Solving Britain"s economic difficulties, said Nick Havens, is a question not so much of political doсtrine as practical judgment. - Разрешение экономических трудностей Англии, сказал премьер-министр это вопрос не столько политической доктрины сколько практической целесообразности.
Legend (descriptive translation)
Descriptive translation - it is the lexical and grammatical transformation, in which the lexical unit DICE substituted by the word, revealing its value. The lack of descriptive translation lies in its verbosity. Therefore, the most successful way of translating this is used where possible to manage a relatively brief explanation.
For example, instead of using stylistically neutral word quarrel - "quarrel" by the following article puts its synonym in the text run-in, which is more colloquial version:
This is a considerable diplomatic coup for China which has been trying to regain international recognition in the wake of its 1989 Tiananmen Square crisis, and shows how vulnerable the UK diplomacy in the run-up to 1987 - Это довольно удачный дипломатический ход Китая, который стремится вернуть утраченное после кризиса 1989 года международное и показать, насколько уязвима была британская дипломатия в ссоре четырехлетней давности.
Compensation
Compensation - a transfer method in which the sense elements, lost during translation, the translated text is transmitted to some other means, and optionally at the same point in the text, as in the original.
Much greater economic tasks were seen to lie ahead. - Предстояли значительно более важные экономические задачи.
In September NRG Energy, an energy wholesaler in Princeton, N. J., applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a license to build and operate a two-reactor nuclear plant near Bay City, Tex. - В сентябре, компания NRG Energy, оптовый торговец энергии в Принстоне, штат Нью-Джерси, обратилась к Комиссии по ядерному урегулированию для получения лицензии, чтобы строить и использовать двухреакторную ядерную установку около Бей-Сити, штат Техас.
As mentioned above, the nomenclature - the list of leadership positions. Usually translation of vocabulary related to leadership positions does not give much effort as it relates to the international vocabulary. Typically, a term denoting the concept of a foreign reality, the same concepts of Russian reality, translated by the use of terms indicating the respective concepts of Russian foreign concepts to reality.
Here are examples of the translation of the nomenclature of names:
Manager - Manager
Head - Head
In the same way names are translated on the range of cases:
license - license
applications - requests
certificate - Help
It should be noted that the complex words and phrases often have equivalent match than simple words. Formation equivalents can be seen in translation of neologisms.
When translating texts on economics and management attention is paid to transfer economic terms, since the terms are one of the characteristics of scientific texts. Here are examples of translation:
money - money
wholesaler - wholesaler
investments - invesititsii
costs - costs
investors - investors
cost - the cost
The above terms are terms of operating in a terminological. All of these terms are translated by finding equivalents in Russian language.
In economic texts there is a large number of names of various firms and companies. There are several ways to provide the proper names - translation and transliteration directly. You can also send the name of the company and the company by maintaining its original language. When translating economic texts we used in this way. Examples include:
NRG Energy - a company NRG Energy
Also in the economic texts often met proper names - place names and personal names. We passed them by transliteration:
Princeton, N. J., - Princeton, New Jersey,
Bay City - Texas
Gilbert Metcalf - Gilbert Metcalf
As can be seen from this example, we have also made lexical added: we added the word "state." The reasons necessitating lexical additions herein may be different. One of them - perhaps the most common - is what can be called "formal unexpressed" semantic components of the phrase in the source language. So, translating into Russian language place names such as American California, Texas, Canada Alberta, Manitoba, British, Middlesex, Surrey, French Lorraine, Bretagne, etc., should, as a rule, do add as Russian readers in most cases is not known, what exactly do these names: California, Texas, Alberta, Manitoba, Middlseksb county of Surrey, in the Lorraine region, Brittany region,
But the well-known place names we passed by direct transfer:
Analysis of the translation of neologisms convinces us that the most common is a translation by selecting the corresponding analogue in another language. Unfortunately, dictionary of neologisms in Russian published extremely rare. Translator much could be learned from such dictionary.
The second way - it is a translation by transcription or transliteration. So, steel lobby as we pass the lobby steel companies. This is the most concise version. Translation-interpretation - a group of persons (who are former congressmen) that on the sidelines of the Congress of trying to put pressure on members of Congress on behalf of the owners steel companies - can hardly be considered successful.
The third way is a method of tracing. For example, street people can be translated as street people (the method of tracing) or as wanderers (analog method).
Conclusion
Based on the above, in this chapter we have come to the conclusion that the neologism (neo + Greek. Logos word) - a new word, linguistic innovation (figure of speech), the grammatical feature, which appears in the language.
A large number of new lexical units appeared in connection with the development of computer technology. New semantic group of neologisms are related to the alleged visits to earth by aliens from outer space.
Neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books are sometimes created neologisms and unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes more clear, vivid, tangible. Most funds formation of new words so often act as a stylistic device.
The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in the language of English writers are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words.
Analysis of new words showed that the predominant host of new vocabulary units are, as expected, nouns, since the expansion of vocabulary is mainly due to the names of objects and events that fill the space of cultural studies.
Learning new words revealed some trends in linguistic and cultural features of the expansion of space in the period under review.
There are many ways to transfer economic topics neologisms from English into Russian. Translator can trace the "inner form" neologism with great caution and only in cases where there is full confidence in the adequacy of the translation. However, analysis motivated "inner form" is generally indispensable step in translating such neologisms.
To achieve adequacy in translating text from one language (s) to another (AEs) translator should use the equivalent of conformity in the language into which translation is done. Among the available linguistic resources need to find equivalents that will be adequate original.
In conclusion, it should again be emphasized that the main condition for the adequacy of the translation of neologisms English economic texts are:
1. Knowledge of the characteristics of interaction with the context of neologism, and major occurrences of various types of structural and semantic neologisms.
2. Knowledge of the basic ways of transferring economic neologisms, and sufficient familiarity with the Russian terminology in this area, which allows to find the Russian equivalent of the English version of neologisms.
3. The ability to choose and use the most appropriate way to create a new translation of compliance for economic neologism that has no Russian equivalent or reflecting specific phenomenon that does not exist in our reality.
The correct translation of neologisms is a difficult problem, despite the fact that the neologisms have much higher semantic certainty and independence.
The practical study in the second chapter of our work allows us to identify the following methods, which are used in the translation of neologisms economic topics:
We came to the conclusion that the translation of neologisms in economic texts from English into Russian are most commonly used techniques such as descriptive translation and interpretation, which is achieved by using a neologism designating the corresponding concept of Russian reality.
When transferring coinage each case translator selects the appropriate option from the corresponding context. The duty of an interpreter – is to convey not only what is said but also how it is said. It is this duty interpreter leads to the necessity of analytical steps in the translation process.
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Applications
Text 1
On My Mind
By Jerry Taylor and Peter Van Doren, senior fellows at the Cato Institute.
Hooked on Subsidies
Why conservatives should join the left"s campaign against nuclear power.
when it comes to politics, we don"t often find ourselves in agreement with Bonnie Raitt or Graham Nash. But now that they are campaigning against new nuclear plants, they"re our friends. Raitt, Nash, the Indigo Girls and other vocal rockers are attacking a provision in pending Senate legislation that would award what they call "massively expensive loan guarantees-potentially a virtual blank check from taxpayers" for nuclear power plant construction.
Even without the new legislation there"s plenty of federal money being doled out. In September NRG Energy, an energy wholesaler in Princeton, N. J., applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a license to build and operate a two-reactor nuclear plant near Bay City, Tex. The NRC is expecting 19 similar applications in the next 18 months. If approved, they will be eligible for loan guarantees under the Energy Policy Act of 2005.
Pro-nuclear groups herald the coming flood of applications as proof that nuclear energy makes economic sense. Nonsense. The only reason investors are interested: government handouts. Absent those subsidies, investor interest would be zero.
A cold-blooded examination of the industry"s numbers bears this out. Tufts economist Gilbert Metcalf concludes that the total cost of juice from a new nuclear plant today is 4.31 cents per kilowatt-hour. That"s far more than electricity from a conventional coal-fired plant (3.53 cents) or "clean coal" plant (3.55 cents). When he takes away everyone"s tax subsidies, however, Metcalf finds that nuclear power is even less competitive (5.94 cents per kwh versus 3.79 cents and 4.37 cents, respectively).
Nuclear energy investments are riskier than investments in coal - or gas-fired electricity. High upfront costs and long construction times mean investors have to wait years to get their money back. The problem here is not just the cost per watt, several times that of a gas plant, but the fact that nuclear plants are big. Result: The upfront capital investment can be 10 to 15 times as great as for a smallgas-fired turbine.
A nuclear plant"s costs are not only higher but more uncertain. Investors have to worry that completion will take place late-or never (witness the abandonment of the reactor at Shoreham, N. Y). Accordingly, nuclear power would have to be substantially cheaper than coal - or gas-fired power to get orders in a free market.
So why does NRG want to build a nuclear plant in Texas? Two factors are in play. First, the license costs a relatively small amount compared with the cost of construction. Second, the federal government would guarantee up to 100% of the $6.5 billion to $8.5 billion NRG might borrow from capital markets (as long as it doesn"t exceed 80% of the project cost). Without such guarantees no investor would lend significant amounts of capital to NRG.
How do France (and India, China and Russia) build cost-effective nuclear power plants? They don"t.governmental officials in those countries, not private investors, decide what is built. Nuclear power appeals to state planners, not market actors.
The only nuclear plant built in a liberalized-energy economy in the last decade was one ordered in Finland in 2004. The Finnish plant was built on 60-year purchase contracts signed by electricity buyers, by a firm (the French Areva) that scarcely seems to be making good money on the deal.
What, then, should government do to overcome nuclear"s economic problems? Absolutely nothing. There is no more to the right-wing case for nuclear subsidies than there is to the left-wing case for solar subsidies.
If the permitting process is broken, then by all means fix it. If plant safety regulations are excessive, then by all means reform them. If greenhouse gas emissions prove to be a problem, then impose a reasonable carbon tax across the board. But once those tasks are complete, the role for government ends.
We like nuclear power as much as anyone else on the right. But friends don"t let friends get hooked on subsidies. We"re glad to see Raitt and her rocker compadres agree.
Text 2
GREEKS BEARING GIFTS
Innocents at Home
When foreign firms list in the U. S., how well are American investors protected? Not very, if one nasty takeover battle is any indication | By Neil Weinberg
ERIC SEMLER, WHO RUNS A NEW YORK City hedge fund, invests in media and communications companies. One failed deal sticks in his craw, and Semler has gone to federal court in New York City for restitution. He claims that two private equity firms, Texas Pacific Group and Арах Partners, committed securities fraud by driving down the stock price of a Greek company listed on Nasdaq that his fund had a stake in and hiding a potentially higher takeover offer.
The lessons for investors: Just because a foreign company is listed on an American exchange doesn"t mean you are afforded every protection.
"We"re not the sort of guys who are looking to pick a fight," Semler says. "But when someone comes in and steals something from us it"s very frustrating." He claims his fund, TCS Capital Management, was shortchanged $108 million. Texas Pacific Group ($30 billion in investor assets) and Арах in London ($20 billion) decline comment.
Their motion to dismiss the suit, however, speaks volumes. It says the buyout was a purely foreign affair to which U. S. securities laws do not apply. If TCS is to prevail under U. S. law, it will have to convince a federal judge there is clear evidence of securities fraud.
"If they trade on Nasdaq and cheat U. S. investors, it doesn"t matter where the company is incorporated. U. S. securities law applies," says lawyer Howard Kaplan, who is representing TCS.
The shootout involves TIM Hellas, formerly Greece"s third-largest wireless phone company. Sender"s hedge fund started investing in it in early 2004 and eventually put up $83 million, or $18.30 a share, for a 5.3% stake. Semler says TIM Hellas was trading at half the average multiple of European wireless firms. Telecom Italia owned 81% of TIM (short for Telecom Italia Mobile) Hellas at the time. Semler figured, a bit naively, that worst-case the Italian parent would buy out the rest of the minority investors at a modest premium. Instead, in April 2005 Texas Pacific and Арах announced a definitive agreement to buy Telecom Italia"s stake for $22 a share (a 3% premium to previous day trading), valuing the company"s stock at $1.9 billion.
While the offer would have handed Semler a small profit, he felt it was a low-ball by as much as $10 a share, compared with what cell firms were trading for on the Continent. In August 2005, shortly before minority shareholders were set to get bought out, Semler asked TIM Hellas" TPG-Apax-controlled board to appoint an independent fairness committee to assess the price.
The board, in a proxy statement filed with the Securities & Exchange Commission, declared the merger price fair. After all, it had gotten a fairness opinion from what it described as "independent investment bank" Morgan Stanley-a firm that had earned $40 million from Texas Pacific and Арах the previous two years. The board also informed minority investors that it would not follow the U. S. practice of establishing a special committee to assess the fairness of the deal: "Greek law does not provide appraisal rights in connection with the merger," it said.
The proxy also noted that an unnamed "potential investor"-later revealed to be Egyptian telecom mogul Naguib Sawiris - had expressed interest in putting in a competing bid that might have resulted in an offer of $26 a share. However, the proxy referred to Sawiris" bid as "highly conditional," and TIM Hellas" owners rejected it.
Another wrinkle: TIM Hellas later told the SEC that TPG and Арах had over the past two years offered Telecom Italia as much as 20 euros a share (now worth $29) for TIM Hellas but were rebuffed. The buyers say Telecom Italia accepted the lower offers because TlM"s fortunes were declining. Semler is arguing that the missing link is a grab bag of goodies, like handsets, that Telecom Italia is selling to TIM Hellas.
Semler was infuriated further when he learned that TPG and Арах bought out Q-Telecom, Greeces fourth-largest cell carrier, for 14.3 times annualized trailing earnings. That means shareholders of Q-Te\ecom - would receive 2.8 times the multiple their shell company, Troy, was paying TIM Hellas investors. The new owners quickly merged TIM Hellas with Q-Telecom and revamped management and marketing. Then, in February, they flipped the company to Sawiris for $4.4 billion, making an 80% profit on TIM Hellas in 20 months. Their adviser on the deal: Morgan Stanley. Now both Арах and TPG are considering buying a stake in Sawiris firm, the Wall Street Journal reported in October. Sawiris declines comment.
Text 3
THE FUNDS
AMERICAN CENTURY ULTRA IS STRUGgling. During the go-go 1990s, the flagship fund of American Century Investments was synonymous with stellar growth stocks. Ultra, along with companions Select and Growth, ran up annual returns of 20% to 40% by owning hot stocks like MCI WorldCom and Lucent Technologies. Then came the end of the bubble. Ultra, like most funds chasing big growth stocks, crashed.
There are two things that a money management firm can do when it finds itself in this predicament. One is to stick to its strategy, inevitably losing assets as customers desert it near the bottom but at least positioning itself to participate in the rebound. The other is to panic and change direction. Ultra panicked.
After riding tech stocks down, this fund sold them and switched to things that looked safer. Stocks in cement, insurance and restaurants replaced former tech highfliers.
Do we need to tell you what happened to the portfolio in the bull market that began five years ago? It lagged, badly. Ultra"s 10.7% average annual return in the five years through September compares with 15.5% for the S&P 500 and 14.1% for Ultra"s peers, funds of large-cap growth stocks. If Ultra, one of the half-dozen best-performing funds of the 1990s with assets of more than $10 billion, is still a growth portfolio, it sure hasn"t acted like one. In the latest FORBES ratings, it gets a mere D in up markets. The rest, all growth funds, scored an A or an A+.
So investors have yanked an estimated $11.6 billion from Ultra-and $16 billion overall from American Century stock and bond funds-since the beginning of last year. Ultra"s three comanagers have left, along with the fund firm"s chief executive and a spate of other high officials. Ultra is under new managers, trying ever so hard for a comeback, but their task is not easy.
Just as matters seemed they couldn"t get worse, this past spring an Iowa man, seeking to compel American Century to buy the small-cap stocks he liked, was arrested after allegedly sending a pipe bomb to a money manager at the firm"s Kansas City headquarters.
The most telling admission that Ultra and its fund family have lost their way is the recent decision to impose sales charges of up to 5.75% on another 12 of American Century"s 84 funds, including Ultra, bringing the total number of its load funds to 39. (Current no-load customers are grandfathered in) Since Ultra"s S record doesn"t attract investors, perhaps stockbrokers can be bribed to do the work.
Even that won"t be an easy sell, since financial advisers compensated by sales fees (loads and 12b-1 s) have good fund families to choose from. "Right now, they simply don"t have a very good fund lineup," says Jeffery D. Chaddock, an adviser with Ameriprise in Columbus, Ohio, which is in the sales fee camp. "I would choose Fidelity or American Funds before American Century. Both have better consistency and ratings."
No one should have any illusion that it"s possible to enjoy the performance of a high-risk growth fund in a bull market without suffering some pain in the bear market that follows. Funds that get A or A+ grades from FORBES for bull markets tend to deliver an F in bear markets. But hang on for a long time, through bull - and bear-market cycles, and you can do well with a risky fund.
Seligman Communications & Information is a good example of the breed. We give this high-tech portfolio an A+ for up-market performance and an F for down markets. It didn"t miss out in the post-2002 bull market, racking up a 22.1% annual return. Over the past 15 years it has averaged a 16.9% return, beating the S&P500"sll%.
Once upon a time the American Century (formerly Twentieth Century) fund family had a clearer sense of purpose. Founder James E. Stowers Jr. looked for companies with positive earnings momentum. In the early 1970s he wrote a computer program that narrowed a list of 16,000 stocks to 1,000, giving his analysts a starting point for final picks. He launched Ultra in 1981, and it was a hit as the market climbed out of a Jimmy Carter-era funk. In early 2000, before the tech crash, the fund had amassed assets of $43 billion. Assets are down to $10.7 billion now. At 83, Stowers remains on the American Century board but is detached from the management of the company he started and spends most of his time on philanthropy.
Last year Bruce Wimberly, who had comanaged Ultra for ten years, departed, ostensibly because he wanted more time with his family. Later Gerard Sullivan, comanager since 2001, and Wade Slome, comanager since 2002, left Ultra as well, although Sullivan is still with American Century.
In came Thomas Telford in June 2006. Previously Telford, 40, a strapping fellow who coaches kids" flag football and soccer, ran New Opportunities II, an American Century small-cap growth fund with a decent record. Another manager, Stephen Lurito, American Century"s new chief investment officer for U. S. growth equity, joined Ultra this past August.
This year"s return of 16.7% is 2.6 points above a rejuvenating large-cap growth category. But Morningstar analyst Christopher Davis remains unconvinced. Telford"s initial showing is too short to be meaningful, he believes. He also worries about an "experience drain," with all the talent leaving; Morningstar gives Ultra only two stars. Davis says he wouldn"t recommend any of American Century"s large growth funds now.
Telford has a quarter of assets in manufacturing, energy and materials, not too far behind info tech and telecom, at 35%.
Un-WorldCom-like names such as Emerson Electric, PepsiCo and United Technologies are now prominent among Ultra"s holdings. While these have decent earnings growth rates, they are hardly explosive.
Turnover has increased to 80%, from 33% in 2005 under Wimberly. Telford says a growth stock has a finite life, and he looks to get it at the sweet spot in its
cycle. "The last thing I want is a growth stock that"s going to stagnate or go down for two years," he says. Telford bought Network Appliance in May at $38 and, after it disappointed, sold at $29 in August. He sold Ultra"s Amazon position after the fund held it for many years (Amazon"s price has since increased threefold) and greatly trimmed Ebay.
Telford has made some good calls, too. Gamemaker Nintendo has more than doubled since he began buying in December 2006. Apple, Ultra"s third-largest holding (2.8% of the portfolio), is ahead 120% in 2007, while GPS-maker Garmin is up 116%. Research In Motion, a new addition in May at $53, is now at $121.
American Century last year hired cyclist Lance Armstrong as a pitchman, part of a multimillion-dollar brand-building campaign. If the fund vendor can"t deliver endurance in its performance records, it can at least offer up a guy who has.
Текст 1
По моему мнению
Джерри Тейлор и Питер ван Дорен, старшие преподаватели в Институте като.
Субсидии
Почему консерваторы должны присоединиться к кампании левых против ядерной энергии.
Когда данная вещь появляется в политике, мы не всегда соглашаемся с Бонни Рэиттом или Грэме Нэшем. Но теперь, когда они проводят кампанию против новых ядерных установок, они стали нашими друзьями. Рэитт, Нэш, Девочки Индиго и другие вокальные рокеры хватаются за условие в законодательстве Сената, которое предоставило бы им как они называют: "в дорогие ссуды в широком масштабе, которые гарантирует потенциально действительный чек без обозначения суммы от налогоплательщиков "для строительства атомной электростанции".
Даже без нового законодательства выделяются большие суммы федеральных денег. В сентябре, компания NRG Energy, оптовый торговец энергии в Принстоне, штат Нью-Джерси, обратилась к Комиссии по ядерному урегулированию для получения лицензии, чтобы строить и использовать двухреакторную ядерную установку около Бей-Сити, штат Техас. Комиссия по ядерному урегулированию ожидает 19 подобных заявлений в последующие полтора года. Если они будут одобрены, то они будут иметь право на гарантии в получении ссуды согласно Акту Политики Энергии от 2005 года.
Проядерные группы говорят о наплыве заявлений, что является доказательством того, что ядерная энергия имеет экономический смысл. Это беспочвенно. Единственное, в чём инвесторы заинтересованы, это в поддержке правительства. У инвестора не было бы никаких интересов при отсутствии данных субсидий.
Хладнокровная экспертиза числа промышленности подтверждает это. Экономист Гильберт Меткалф приходит к заключению, что общая стоимость от новой ядерной установки сегодня составляет 4.31 цента за киловатт-час. Это - гораздо больше, чем электричество от обычной угольной установки (3.53 цента) или установки "чистого угля" (3.55 цента). Однако Меткалф находит, что когда он забирает всеобщие налоговые субсидии, что ядерная энергия даже менее конкурентоспособна (5.94 цента в против 3.79 цента и 4.37 цента, соответственно).
Инвестиции в ядерной энергии более опасны, чем инвестиции в уголь или газ. Высокие затраты и долгие сроки строительства подразумевают, что инвесторы должны ждать годы, чтобы вернуть свои деньги. Проблема здесь не только в стоимости в ваттах, несколько раз превышающей газовую установку, а в том факте, что ядерные установки являются большими. В результате инвестиция капитала может быть от 10 до 15 раз больше, чем газовая турбина.
Затраты в ядерной установке не только выше, но и более сомнительны. Инвесторов должно насторожить, что завершение будет поздно - или вообще никогда (например, отказ от реактора в Сторхэме, Нью-Йорк). Соответственно, ядерная энергия должна быть существенно более дешевле, чем уголь или газ, чтобы быть востребованной на свободном рынке.
Так, почему, NRG хочет строить ядерную установку в штате Техас? Два фактора влияют на данное решение. Во-первых, лицензия стоит относительно дёшево по сравнению со стоимостью строительства. Во вторых, федеральное правительство гарантировало бы до 100% от 6.5 миллиардов $ к 8.5 миллиардам $, которые NRG, могла бы заимствовать от рынков капитала (пока это не превышает 80% от проектной стоимости). Без таких гарантий никакой инвестор не предоставил бы NRG существенные суммы из своего капитала.
Как Франция (и Индия, и Китай, и Россия) строит рентабельные атомные электростанции? Они этого не делают. Именно правительственные должностные лица в тех странах, а не частные инвесторы, решают, что будет построено. Государственные планировщики распоряжаются энергией.
Единственная ядерная установка, построенная в качестве экономии свободной энергии в прошлом десятилетии была заказана в Финляндии в 2004 году. Финская установка была построена согласно контракту на 60 лет, подписанный покупателями электричества, фирмой (французской Areva) и, кажется, приносит хороший доход.
Что, тогда, правительство должно было делать, чтобы преодолеть экономические ядерные проблемы? Абсолютно ничего.
Если процесс разрешения нарушен, то во что бы, то ни стало, его устанавливают. Если правила техники безопасности установки чрезмерны, то во что бы то ни стало их преобразовывают. Если парниковый эффект оказывается проблемой, то устанавливают вполне разумный налог на углерод. Но как только данные задачи решены, роль правительства считается сыгранной.
Мы больше всех любим ядерную энергию. Но друзья не позволяют друзьям цепляться за субсидии. Мы довольны видеть Рэитт и ее рокерских подруг согласными с этим.
Текст 2
ГРЕКИ, НЕСУЩИЕ ПОДАРКИ
Невинные дома
Когда иностранные фирмы внесены в список в США, насколько хорошо защищены американские инвесторы? Не очень, если одно противное сражение переворота - любой признак | Нейл Веинберг
ЭРИК Семлер, который управляет денежным фондом в НЬЮ-ЙОРК СИТИ, вкладывает капитал в компании коммуникаций и средства массовой информации. Если что-то идёт не так как он хочет, то Семлер обращается в федеральный суд в Нью-Йорк Сити за реституцией. Он утверждает, что две частных фирмы, Texas Pacific Group и Арах Partners совершили мошенничество с ценными бумагами, снижая цены акций греческой компании, внесенной в список на Nasdaq, что его фонд имел долю и был сокрыт.
Уроки для инвесторов: только, потому, что иностранная компания внесена в список на Американском обмене, не подразумевает, что Вам предоставлена любая защита.
"Мы - не те парни, которые ждут лишь того, чтобы поспорить, говорит Семлер." Но когда кто-то влезает и крадет что-нибудь у нас, это очень расстраивает". Он требует свой вклад у TCS Capital Management, который был сокращён до 108 миллионов долларов и Арах в Лондоне (20 миллиардов $).
Их попытки отклонить иск, однако, говорят о добавлении объемов. Это говорит, о том, что это полностью прерогатива иностранных дел, к которому американские законы о ценных бумагах не применяются. Если TCS должен преобладать согласно американскому закону, это должно убедить федерального судью как ясное свидетельство мошенничества с ценными бумагами.
"Если они торгуют и обманывают американских инвесторов, не имеет значения, где включена компания. Применяется американский закон о ценных бумагах " говорит адвокат Говард Каплан, который представляет TCS.
Сюда вовлечена TIM Hellas, бывшая третья по величине в Греции компания по беспроводным телефонам. Фонд начал вкладывать капитал в начале 2004 года и в конечном счете поднимал 83 миллиона $, или 18.30 $ с одной акции, за 5.3%. Семлер говорит, что TIM Hellas торговал в половине среднего числа, многократного из Европейских фирм. Телесвязь Italia находящиеся в собственности на 81% у TIM Hellas в то время. Семлер наивно рассчитывал, что в худшем случае, итальянская фирма выкупит остальную часть инвестиций. Вместо этого, в апреле 2005 года Texas Pacific Group и Арах Partners объявили соглашение на покупку доля в Италии.
В то время, как предложение обеспечило бы Семлеру маленькую прибыль, он чувствовал, что это очень низкий процент по сравнению с тем, что фирмы имели на Континенте. В августе 2005 года, были созваны акционеры, чтобы выкупить акции, Семлер попросил, чтобы назначили независимый комитет справедливости для определения истинной цены.
Правление, вместе с Обменной Комиссией, объявляло ярмарку цен для слияния компаний. В конце концов, это привело к справедливому мнению, о том, что это "независимый инвестиционный банк" фирмы Моргана Станлей, которая заработала 40 миллионов в предыдущие два года. Правление также информировало инвесторов, что оно не будет следовать американской практике установки специального комитета, чтобы оценить справедливость дела: "Греческий закон не предусматривает права оценки в связи со слиянием компаний" - было сказано правлением.
Полномочие также отметило, что неназванный "потенциальный инвестор" - позже выяснилось, что египетский магнат Нагуиб Савирис выразил интерес во включении предложения конкуренции, которое могло бы закончиться предложением в 26 миллионов долларов. Однако, предложение Савириса было принято как "высоко условное" и владельцы греческой фирмы отклонили его.
Другая проблема заключается в том, что греческая фирма позже сказала, что Texas Pacific Group и Арах Partners имели за прошедшие два года хорошие проценты, покупатели говорят, что Италия принимала более низкие предложения, потому что благосостояние снижалось. Семлер спорит, что отсутствующая связь - способ захвата положительных героев, подобно телефонным трубкам, и что Италия продалась греческой фирме.
Семлер ещё больше пришёл в бешенство, когда узнал, что Texas Pacific Group и Арах Partners выкупали Q-Telecom, четвёртую по величине фирму. Это означает, что акционеры Q-Telecom получили бы в 2.8 раза больше. Монетный вес, оплачивали инвесторам Тима Хелласа. Новые владельцы быстро слили Тима Хелласа с Q-телесвязью и обновляли управление и маркетинг. Тогда, в феврале, они щелкали компанией к Sawiris для 4.4 миллиардов $, делая прибыль на 80% от Тима Хелласа через 20 месяцев. Их советник на деле: Морган Стэнли. Теперь и Арах и TPG рассматривают выкупающий долей (ставкой) Sawiris фирмой, "Уолл Стрит джорнал", сообщенный в октябре.
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ФОНДЫ
АМЕРИКАНСКОЕ СТОЛЕТИЕ АКТИВНО БОРЕТСЯ. В течение энергичных 1990-ых, фонд флагманского судна Американского столетия Инвестиции были синонимичны со звездными акциями. Крайний фонд, наряду с Выбором компаньонов и Ростом, управляло ежегодными возвращениями 20% к 40%, имея при этом горячие акции подобно компаниям MCI WorldCom и Lucent Technologies. Тогда настал момент, когда должен был лопнуть данный пузырь. Крайний фонд, подобно большинству фондов, преследующих большие акции роста, потерпел крах.
Есть две вещи, которые управляющая деньгами фирма может делать, когда это окажется в этом затруднительном положении. Каждый должен придерживаться этой стратегии, неизбежно проигрышных активов, поскольку клиенты покидают это фонд, но, по крайней мере, остаётся, расположение, чтобы участвовать в рикошете.
После потери на технических акциях, этот фонд продал им и переключил к вещам, которые выглядели более безопасными. Акции в цементе, страховании и ресторанах заменяли прежний технический колледж.
Мы должны сообщить Вам, что же случилось с портфелем на бычьем рынке, который начал работать пять лет назад? Он ужасно отставал. У компании Ultra"s 10.7% составляют в среднем ежегодное возвращение, в этих пяти годах до сентября сравнивает с 15.5% для компании SP 500 и 14.1% для пэров (равных по положению). В самых последних оценках ФОРБСА, это получает простой D на рынках.
Так что инвесторы дергали оцененные 11.6 миллиардов $ от Ультра 16 миллиардов $, полных от Американских акций столетия и фондов обязательства - начиная с начала прошлого года. Трое из Ultra"s уехали, наряду с руководителем фирмы фонда и потоком других высоких должностных лиц. Также казалось, что положение дел не могло ухудшаться, тем не менее, прошлой весной человек Штата Айова, пытаясь заставить Американское столетие покупать акции, которые он имел, был арестован после предположительной попытки заложить бомбу в штабе Города Канзас-Сити.
Большинство сообщений говорят, что Ультра и его фонда потеряли свой путь - недавнее решение наложить коммерческие обвинения до 5.75% на еще 12 из Американского столетия 84 фонда, включая крайний фонд, принося общее количество его фондов груза к 39. (Текущие клиенты без груза) С тех пор отчёт Ultra"s S не привлекает инвесторов, возможно биржевые маклеры были подкуплены, чтобы сделать работу.
Но это было бы нелегко, так как финансовые советники, которым дают компенсацию коммерческие платы (грузы и 12b-1 s) имеют хорошие фонды, Прямо сейчас, они просто не имеют очень хорошей очереди фонда, " говорит Джеффери Д. Чаддок, советник в Колумбусе, Штате Огайо, который находится в коммерческом лагере." Я выбрал бы Преданность или Американские Фонды, чем Американское столетие.
Никто не должен иметь иллюзию, что возможно наслаждаться работой фонда роста высокого риска на бычьем рынке без того, чтобы не перенести некоторые потери на рынке с пониженной тенденцией. Фонды, которые получают или сорта от ФОРБСА для бычьих рынков, имеют тенденцию поставлять F в рынках с пониженной тенденцией.
Когда-то Американское столетие (прежде Двадцатое столетие) имело более ясный смысл цели. Основатель Джеймс Е. Стоуерс разыскивал компании младшие с положительным импульсом дохода. В начале 1970-ых он написал компьютерную программу, которая сузила список 16,000 акций к 1,000, давая его аналитикам, отправная точка для финала выбирает. Он запустил Крайний фонд в 1981, и это было удар, поскольку рынок поднялся. В начале 2000, перед техническим крахом, фонд накопил активы 43 миллиардов $. Активы - до 10.7 миллиардов $ теперь. В 83, Стоуэрс всё ещё остается в правлении, но он отделен от управления компании, он стал тратить больше времени на филантропию.
В прошлом году Брюс Вимберли, который был связан с Ультрой в течение десяти лет, ушёл с поста, якобы потому, что он хотел больше времени проводить со своей семьёй. Более поздний Джерард Сулливан, со-менеджер с 2001 года, также оставил Ультра.
Другой менеджер, Стивен Лурито, - новый главный инвестиционный чиновник за американскую акцию. Это годовое возвращение 16.7% - 2.6 пункта выше категории роста. Но аналитик Morningstar Кристофер Дэвис остается непреклонным. Начальный показ Телфорда слишком короток, чтобы быть значащим, считает он. Он также волнуется об " утечке опыта, " с последующим дефецитом таланта; Morningstar дает Ультре только две звезды. Дэвис говорит, что он не рекомендовал бы никому Американское столетие.
Телфорд имеет четверть активов в производстве, энергии и материалах, не слишком далеко позади технического колледжа информации и телесвязи, в 35%.
Un-WorldCom-like названия типа Emerson Электрический, PepsiCo и Объединенные Технологии теперь виден среди Ultra"s проведения. В то время как они имеют приличные нормы роста дохода, они как взрывчатое вещество.
Товарооборот увеличился к 80%, от 33% в 2005 под Wimberly. Телфорд говорит, что акция роста имеет конечную жизнь, и он ждёт, чтобы получить доход в тёплом месте.
Цикл. Последняя вещь, которую я хочу - акция роста, на котором он собирается застаиваться или спускаться в течение двух лет, " говорит он. Телфорд купил Прибор Сети в Мае в 38 $ и, после того, как это разочаровало, продал за 29 $ в августе. Он продал положение Ultra"s
Американское столетие в прошлом году нанимало велосипедиста Ланс Армстронга как часть многомиллионной кампании.
Translation features of neologisms in the modern vocabulary