Distibution of Russian words in English to the period

CONTENT

Introduction	5
1	Borrowings	6
1.1	Vocabulary of English	8
1.2	Borrowing in English Language	10
1.3	Classification of borrowings	15
1.4	Interest in Russian language	19
2.	Distibution of Russian words in English to the period	23
3	Classification of Russian borrowings by designating the concept.	32
CONCLUSION	62
LIST OF REFFERENCES	64
Supplement

Introduction

Human development - the development of all its constituent cultures , and, accordingly, all languages. Culture exposed to a particular historical development and independently from other cultures , and ( in a very greater extent ) in cooperation with them. Contacts occur in all areas - politics, economics , art, everyday life - and lead to significant changes in the lifestyle , outlook , and , of course, language . Culture mutually borrow phenomena and concepts ; languages - their designations . Thus there is enrichment of cultures and languages of different nations. The term " enrichment" is not, however, be understood as implicit acceptance of any borrowing in language that happens often and it leads to a glut of alien and unjustified elements in the presence of their own , the usual signs of the various phenomena . Borrowing must be deliberate ; if possible means to manage their own language should avoid extraneous inclusions. Should not, however , go to the other extreme - complete denial of any borrowings and was trying to avoid not only new but already and replace entrenched in aboriginal language borrowed elements . The need for such replacement is not only highly controversial , but are unlikely to be feasible in some linguists proposed scale : many of the latest borrowing come to refer to the new language as having no analogues in the culture , events; borrowed many words are spoken and internationalism in the current era of globalization greatly facilitate international communication ; sometimes attempt to replace foreign words primordial creates cumbersome and unsuitable for use of the phrase (flat instead of round flatbread pizza in Arab countries ); in some cases, when a new word appears that it is also constructed of foreign language elements borrowed previously and therefore not perceived as foreign ( replacing the word on the price list price list (price current)). Thus, the scientific approach to the problem of linguistic borrowing should follow the middle path and take into account the functional and stylistic aspects of this phenomenon - of this or that word to a certain style and field use.

Related borrowing devoted to the works of many researchers. Its relevance over time is not lost , but rather enhanced , since the dynamics of the process of borrowing increases. The purpose of this paper is to explore the extensive material accumulated in linguistics , taking into account the existence of different opinions on this issue , and outline the key aspects of it. English is very convenient for this kind of study , since , according to various estimates , 70-75 % of its vocabulary is borrowing protruding object of study of this work . To achieve the above purpose it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

- To determine the causes of foreign language elements in the English language;

- Consider what kinds of loans allocated by linguists ;- Explore the changes that have been borrowing in the process of adaptation to the host system (in this case English ) language;

- To reveal the results of this phenomenon for the language ;

- Review existing approaches to translation borrowing English into Russian.

The structure of this work is determined by the above mentioned tasks. The first chapter describes the process of borrowing , its causes and results, as well as borrowing some foreign language element , its classification and function in the host language . The second chapter is devoted to issues that arise in the translation of these elements into another language. Practical part of the work is a translation of texts containing these phenomena . In the translation comments focuses on the analysis of the difficulties associated with the transfer of borrowing.

1 BORROWINGS

Borrowing - is the process by which language appears in some foreign language and fixed element ; as a foreign language element itself . It is an integral part of the operation and the historical changes of language, one of the main sources of replenishment of the vocabulary ; as a full-fledged language element that is part of its lexical wealth, serving as the source of new roots , word-building elements and precise terms .

Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. Borrowing process lies at the heart of linguistic activity .

Sound and formal uniformity within a single language is a consequence of borrowing among other individuals ; occurs in the same manner and borrow elements lexicon of one language in another language - through the interaction of their carriers.

Share of foreign elements in the great languages , though accurately estimate their number is not possible, as due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating into the language, and because of the actions of the assimilation process , which makes it difficult to determine the origin of the word.

In each language are the following layers : words, inherent in all languages of the same family ; words common to a group , a subgroup of related languages ; native language-specific words ; loanwords . On the example of the English language , it looks like this:

- Indo-European word ( common to many languages): mother, brother, daughter, wolf, meat, hear, hundred, be, stand;

- The German word : bear, finger, say, see, white, winter;

- West German words : age, ask, give, love, south;

- Proper English ( Anglo- Saxon words ): lady, lord, boy, girl;

- Borrowing:

- From related languages : knight, low, flat, fellow, sale ( from Old Norse ), rummer, napper, fitter ( in Dutch );

- From another language system : Soviet, sputnik, steppe, taiga ( from Russian), judo, samurai, sumo ( from Japanese ), xylophone, epoch, echo ( from the Greek ) .

This is a common classification of the vocabulary of the English language. But it's not unequivocally true. For example, a word taken for Indo-European , it may be borrowed from other proto-languages , as trade and other relations between nations have existed since the most ancient times.

Words borrowed from the most ancient times, and fully assimilated the host language, are not perceived as foreign , and to establish their origin is often difficulty even for the linguist (table - from the French ) .

Often difficult to establish exactly what the language of the group or subgroup is the source of the word (the word figure could come either directly from Latin figura, or through the French figure). Another problem - the distinction of the terms " origin of the word " and " the source of borrowing ."

Many words are borrowing more and the second degree (for example , the word valley came into English from Latin via French). [14 ; p.31 ]

Despite some mistakes, this classification shows the magnitude of the phenomenon : we see that the majority of English words are borrowed - in an earlier or later period , from near or far the language system .

1.1 Vocabulary of English

Modern English, with the specific features of its sound and grammatical structure and vocabulary of the stands before us as the product of a long historical development, during which the language is subject to diverse changes due to various reasons. As in sound composition and in grammatical structure and vocabulary of the language throughout history there were significant, it is more gradual, the more rapid changes in most cases due to internal laws of its development, and sometimes, especially in the vocabulary of the under external influences associated with the historical destiny of the English people. Changes affect all aspects (levels, lines, aspects) of linguistic structure, but they operate in different ways. The historical development of each level depends on the specific causes and conditions that encourage shifts in the lexical structure of language, in its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical structure.

Vocabulary of a language is in a state of flux. This mobility and variability due to the fact that the language, and especially its vocabulary, as directly related to production, and from every other people in social activities. To language could fully perform its main function is activated - the most important means of communication function - its vocabulary should respond quickly to reflect and record the changes taking place in all spheres of human life and activity: in manufacturing, in science, in outlook, in the socio- economic relations in the home.

Throughout the long history of the English language have been significant changes in all its aspects. If some text directly compare the IX century, for example, an excerpt from "AEON", with some modern text, the difference seems so great that at first glance it would seem that we are dealing with two completely different languages. However, this difference is the result of a long and gradual development, during which the English language has never ceased to be himself. Thus, the language and the language of the IX century XXI century represent stages in the development of the same moving system - stages, separated by a long series of incremental changes in their totality constitute the overall development of language.

Vocabulary, ie the set of words of a language is the most mobile and most rapidly developing part of it. That language vocabulary is particularly sensitive to all changes in the nation's history - the carrier of the language, and not only to changes in the economic structure, but also to all kinds of changes in production, culture, science, life and so on.

In the vocabulary of the English language has undergone for more than a thousand years of its history is very significant changes - more significant than, say, French or German. Vocabulary of modern English is certainly much richer than the vocabulary of Old English. This enrichment came in English as the internal resources - compounding, affixation and rethinking words and by borrowing words from other languages, which in English due to the specific conditions of the historical life of the English people, play a more significant role than, for example in German.

The composition of the English Dictionary reflect the adoption of Christianity, faced with the Latin civilization British, Scandinavian and Norman conquest (after which the English language has lost some of his native vocabulary of the, including a number of words of the everyday use), Hundred Years War, the rise of the bourgeoisie, the Renaissance, the growth of sea power of England, colonial conquests, trade and industry, science and literature, the growth and development of self-consciousness of the working class, the first and second world war.

As a result of all these processes operating within the vocabulary of modern English, retaining its basic core of native English words, is, however, very mixed in origin.

Vocabulary of modern English language is a complex combination of different elements that build on one another throughout the history of the language and engage in a variety of relationships between them.

Composition of the English lexicon, like any language, is changing over time. Many words that were in use in earlier periods, disappearing from the living language or because they referred to objects and concepts are outdated, no longer be used in the changed conditions of life, or because they are replaced by other words that have become commonplace. Such words, coming from the living use can, however, be used in the literary language with special lexical targets.

Quantitative growth and qualitative changes of vocabulary related to the history of the people, the creator and bearer of the language. Modern English vocabulary be thought a product of a variety of ages. Due to the fact that the development of language - all sides, including the vocabulary of - occurs gradually, we find in the dictionary of modern English words have developed in different historical periods, resulting in a variety of ways to replenish it, using various means of word-formation relating to the different moments of English history.

The analysis shows that the process leading to the development of the vocabulary of the English language at all stages was derivation, ie, the formation of words from lexical material is present. Word formation is though not the only, but the main means of enriching vocabulary. However, neither the language never treated alone own lexical means. Among the processes associated with the completion of the dictionary of the Russian language, a certain place is the borrowing of foreign vocabulary as a way of nomination of new phenomena, as well as replacement of existing items. Such elements do not immediately receive general acceptance and are firmly in the language.

Thus, enrichment of vocabulary is accomplished not only by means of word-resources of the language, but also borrowing from other languages, ie, the dictionary is constantly enriched by new elements, partly borrowed from other languages, partly re-established in the language. These loans can be caused by different reasons and in different ways manifest in the development of the vocabulary of the individual languages. Languages such that nothing ever borrowed from the other, there was not.

The third way to enrich the vocabulary of - onomatopoeia (imitative wordbuilding, echoism) is compared with the first two much smaller value. In this case, the new words are formed on the basis of sound, somehow associated with this phenomenon. Its use is limited to digital audio. This way you can designate only that affects hearing. For example, the sounds emitted by various birds and zhavotnymi: to coo 'Moo', to buzz 'Buzz'.

1.2 BORROWING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

A child who learns to speak, can acquire most of their skills from any one person, say from his mother, but he will hear other speakers and will learn some skills and from them. Even the basic elements of the vocabulary of that child learns at this time, do not repeat any of the exact skills of adults. Throughout his life does not cease speaking learn language skills from others, and these zaimstvavaniya, though less significant, are very numerous and are drawn from various sources.

Each language team learns something from their neighbors. Objects created by both nature and performance, moving from one team to another, exactly as certain models - processes, methods of warfare, religious rituals or forms of individual behavior.

In the field of borrowing distinguish borrowing dialect when borrowed phenomenon come from the same language, and borrowing from the field of culture (cultural borrowing), when borrowed phenomenon come from another language.

History borrowing more than any other region of the vocabulary of the people connected with the history of his relations with other nations.

If we consider the vocabulary of the English language, all the words belonging to it should be regarded as English, with the exception of words that form its betray their foreign origin.

But such words in the English language is relatively small. The overwhelming weight of words in modern language is perceived as a word of English, whatever their actual origin. In fact, the native English words are known from the Old English period. They make up less than half of the English vocabulary. The rest of the language vocabulary - words of foreign origin, which came from the Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian and other languages. Words of foreign origin are called borrowing.

Borrowing lexical items from one language to another - a phenomenon very ancient and has been known languages of the ancient world. For the fate of loanwords in their new language has a certain value the way in which they are entered in this language. There may be two such ways. First, an oral way, ie through live communication of two languages of the nations or adoption names artefacts. In this case, the word quickly fully assimilated into English. Second, the book or written way, ie borrowing from hearsay foreign texts in translation of these texts in their native language. In this case, the word longer retain their phonetic spelling and grammatical features.

By definition Neljubina LL borrowing - is "an introduction to the vocabulary of a foreign language words Fund" / 25, page 28 /. Borrowing - "appeal to the lexical fund other languages to express new concepts, further differentiation of existing and designations of previously unknown objects" / 1, pp. 78 /. Borrowing - the process by which the language appears in some foreign language and fixed element (primarily word or morpheme notional), as well as a foreign language element itself. Borrowing - an intrinsic part of the operation and the historical changes of language, one of the main sources of replenishment vocabulary. Borrowing vocabulary is a consequence of bringing people together on the basis of economic, political, scientific and cultural relations. So, in the Germanic languages has an extensive reservoir of ancient Latin borrowings related to various subject areas in the ancient Slavic languages borrowing - from German and Iranian languages. Borrowings of the oldest in the Russian language can be called a word of Iranian languages, for example, the word dog. Borrowings are direct or indirect. There are loan words with a very long and complicated history. In most cases, loan words fall into the language as a means of naming new things and the expression of previously unknown concepts. Loanwords may also be secondary names of known objects and phenomena. This occurs if the loanword is used for several other characteristics of the object, if it is generally accepted international term or if foreign words forcibly introduced into the language (when the military occupation).

Ambiguous words are usually imported in one of its meanings, and the scope of the word when borrowing is usually narrowed.

When borrowing meaning often shifts. It also happens that loanword returns to its new value back into the language from which it came. That is, apparently, the story word bistro coming in Russian language from French, where it arose after the War of 1812, when part of the Russian troops were in France - probably as a transfer replica "Quickly!"

It is generally considered that the occurrence of the word in the borrowing language, the following conditions:

• transfer of the foreign word phonetically and grammatically means the borrowing language;
• matching words with grammatical classes and categories of the borrowing language;
• phonetic and grammatical development of the foreign word;
• Activity derivational word;
• semantic development, namely, certainty values differentsializatsiya values and shades existed between the words in the language and borrowing;
• coined by regular speech.

However, some conditions are not required, for example, phonetic and grammatical word association and its derivational activity.

To become a borrowing that came from a foreign language word should gain a foothold in their new language, to be established in its vocabulary.

When borrowing adapts words to the phonological system of the borrowing language, ie missing it sounds are replaced by the closest. This adaptation, ie assimilation can occur gradually, sometimes foreign words for some time remain in their pronunciation sounds in a given language missing. In addition to phonetic loanword also exposed grammatical (morphological) assimilation. The nature of this assimilation depends on how the appearance of a borrowed word corresponds to the borrowing language morphology models.

You can set two main layers of English lexicon: the Anglo-Saxon and Romanesque. Romanesque layer in turn is from the Latin and French, which can be divided into its component parts, which differ from each other as to the time of their entry into the English language, and in their semantic features. In addition, the English vocabulary logical state even Greek, Scandinavian, Italian, Spanish layers, as well as some words borrowed from nearly 50 languages, including Russian. Consideration of the vocabulary of the English language shows that the predominant importance in the composition of the vocabulary of modern English language have lexical elements dating back to the ancient Indo-European language and an all-German community, as well as lexical elements, which are the result of the English word derivation. However, these sources are not the only source of wealth and the development of English vocabulary. Indeed, we know that in the vocabulary of modern English language includes lexical borrowings from other languages. Usually indicates that the most important of these sources were Latin, French and Scandinavian languages. Some of the words of these languages was so assimilated the English language that even penetrated to the main lexical core, but much more of them is beyond the latter.

1500 years of development English borrowed words from more than 50 languages since its carriers engage in a variety of contacts with speakers of other languages in Europe and on other continents. That explains such an abundance of foreign language elements in the vocabulary of the English language.

Words from other languages, which in linguistics is called the general term 'borrowing', generally fall into this language in two ways: as a result of the hybridization of languages and as a result of cultural, historical, socio-economic and other relations between nations. For example, the English language in the process of historical development was subjected to hybridization with the Scandinavian languages, with the Norman dialect of French. In addition, English language almost throughout its history had a greater or lesser degree of contact, and hence the linguistic interaction with spoken Latin, French, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages of the world.

As crossing languages and language interoperability as a result of cultural and economic ties between nations are not equal in terms of the results of the influence of one language into another. The number and nature of borrowed words depends largely on the specific historical conditions in which there is an influence of one language into another. For example, in the English words borrowed from Scandinavian languages as a result of crossing of these languages, much inferior to quantify the words borrowed from the French language as a result of cultural, political and economic relations of the two peoples. Words caught in English by crossing the English language with the French during the Norman Conquest, constitute the most significant layer of borrowing in modern English, namely about 60% of vocabulary.

The greatest number of loan words in the English language was seen in connection with the need to express new concepts arising in the process of social development in the communication process of the English people with other nations. However, borrowing among a significant number of words which appeared in English as early synonyms for existing words of Anglo-Saxon origin. Some of them have become part of the English language, while others are still being felt as alien elements.

Stability of borrowed words in the language depends on various reasons, the most important of which is the ability of the new words to adequately express a new concept or shade already known concepts. Borrowed words from other languages, if they are held in English, usually drawn by the phonetic and morphological laws borrowed language. English is more inclined to accept loan words in their original form, than to translate them using native elements, as is done in other languages. The vast majority of loan words in English, were converted to the corresponding models of English words. Often, however, foreign words, the so-called book-borrowing, while retain their external foreign appearance. This is manifested, in particular, in maintaining an unusual place for English accents, the word symbol, and even sometimes pronunciation. In rare cases, a language and preservation of unusual morphological take (for example, the plural form).

Finally, foreign words, assimilated into English, may alter its original meaning. This is quite natural, because these words begin to live a full life and ancestral words as well as the latter, in the process of improving the language specified in the lexical-semantic terms, overgrown additional values.

Borrowing in different languages different influences to enrich vocabulary. In some languages, they do not have such an effect, which could materially affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical epochs had such a significant influence on the vocabulary of a language that even minor words such as pronouns, prepositions, borrowed from other languages, supplanted native function words.

That is exactly the case with the English language. During the long history of its development, English took a considerable amount of foreign words, one way or another penetrated the dictionary. Among these are the words and functional words and derivational morphemes. Such a huge amount of loan words in the English language led some linguists argue that the English language has lost its identity, that he is a "hybrid language." English linguist A.Bo, for example, argues that the ability of English derivational noticeably beginning to fade due to the ease with which this language refers to other languages if necessary refer to the new concept.

However, despite the fact that a large number of English words is words borrowed from other languages, this language has not lost its identity: he was a Germanic language with all the characteristic features inherent throughout its development, and the changes that he suffered in connection with the borrowing only enriched its vocabulary.

The role of borrowings (borrowings, loan - words) in different languages varies and depends on the specific historical conditions of development of each language. In English, the percentage of loans is much higher than in many other languages, as for historical reasons it was very permeable. English more than any other language had to borrow foreign words in direct direct contact first in the Middle Ages by successive British Isles foreign invaders, and later in terms of trade expansion and colonization activity of Englishmen. It is estimated that the number of words in the English native dictionary is only about 30%.

General law of the uneven changes in the elements of the language applied to the problem of borrowing is formulated as follows: the most permeable are the most mobile elements of the language included in the vocabulary of a language, less permeable - to defend the fund elements, and almost not exposed to foreign influences grammatical structure of the language.

Or that the influence of one language to another is always historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc. lead to more or less close interaction of different languages. The intensity of the flow of new loan words in different periods are different. Depending on the specific historical conditions, it increases and decreases. Degree of influence of one language to another while largely dependent on the language factor, namely the degree of closeness of interacting languages, ie on whether they are closely related or not.

Misconceptions prevailing in linguistics about the problem of borrowing is not limited to exaggerate their role in the development of language. The approach to the topic was one-sided and formal. Researchers were interested primarily sources and dates of borrowing and, at best, historical causes and conditions of borrowing.

While the significance of these data can not be limited. Now, scientists are interested, not only how and why it loanword, but as it became assimilated into the language as obeyed its grammar and phonetic rules of how to change its value, and the changes caused his appearance in the vocabulary of accepting his tongue.

The need for such an approach to borrowing some Russian scholars have pointed out long ago. In particular, the largest Russian linguist XIX century by AA Potebnya believed that need not ask that borrowed from anyone, and it is necessary to ask what that was created as a result of, the institution of a push by borrowing words from other people. But this view was not widespread at the time and found no response.

AA Potebnya drew attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. "Borrow, - he said - then take in order to be able to contribute to the treasury of human culture more than it receives." Such an approach to the question of borrowing reveals regularities that govern the development of vocabulary, explain the phenomena occurring in it and identify their causes, to reveal the connection between the history of individual words, the history of language and history of the people.

Due to the systemic nature of language in general and vocabulary in particular, no new entrant vocabulary borrowed words can not go by without affecting the rest of the vocabulary. Loanword usually assumes one or more values semantically closest to his words, had previously existed in the language. Thus there is a rearrangement in their semantic structure, ie some minor importance may be the central and vice versa. May also occur, and often there is a replacement of the first words close in meaning coincide with a new word. This happens because the long coexistence in the language of absolute or almost absolute synonyms impossible and always wound up or disengagement of their values, or the displacement of the first unnecessary words.

General Act on the systemic effects of language as applied to the problem of debt can therefore be formulated as follows: any change in the vocabulary of a foreign language penetration borrowing entails semantic or stylistic changes to the existing language in words and shifts in the synonymous groups.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWING

 

Available in the vocabulary of the borrowed words can be classified as follows: 1) Source of borrowing; 2) over what aspect of the word is borrowed; 3) according to the degree of assimilation.

1) According to the source, and the era of borrowing in the vocabulary of the English language are distinguished:

 

Table 1. Etymological dictionary structure Eng. language

Local (your) element	Borrowed item
Indo-European element German element English element	Celtic (V - VI century AD.) Latin Group I - I in. BC Group II - VII century. BC Group III - era Renaissance Scandinavian (VIII - XI century AD.) French a) Norman borrowing (XI - XIII century AD.) b) Parisian borrowing (Revival) Greek (Revival) Italian (Revival and later Renaissance) Spanish (and Rebirth later Renaissance) German Indian Russian and certain other groups

 

2) By the way, what aspect of the word is new to the host language , borrowing divided into: phonetic or transcription , when the overall sound is set for the borrowing language new, ie it is borrowing lexical unit that maintains its shape sound (sometimes somewhat modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language in which the word is borrowed) tracings- Translation - Loans (ie borrowing by literal translation, usually in parts, foreign words or phrases that accurately reproduce its facilities with the host language preservation of the morphological structure and motivation); semantic borrowing and word-building elements .

Under the semantic borrowing meant borrowing a new value, often portable, to an existing word in the language. Words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language and to the penetration of Sovietisms, but the values of ' a member of the Communist children's organization 'and' labor collective 'they got under the influence of Russian post-October period.

As for the Russian language, the pre-October period were borrowed mainly words connected with the peculiarities of Russian nature and life, with items of trade Россией: sable ' соболь '; astrakhan ' каракуль '; sterlet ' стерлядь '; steppe ' степь '; verst ' верста '; izba ' изба ' etc. In English, many Sovietisms. Among them are phonetic borrowing, where a new concept borrowed and new sound complex: Soviet, Sputnik, bolshevik, kolkhoz, activist. (When comparing the values of a borrowed word to that which it had in the language, it saves only a part of their values, often one and, moreover, is not the primary and derivative, and often becomes a term. striking example is borrowed from Russian sputnik and Soviet. )

Tracing paper (from the French. calque 'copy') - a unit created by borrowing structure element of a foreign language (words or phrases) with the replacement of its material embodiment means mother tongue; creation process called tracing paper tracings.

Thus tracing - a way of drawing in which the borrowed associative value and structural model of the word or phrase. When tracing the components of the borrowed words or phrases translated separately and connected to the sample of foreign words or phrases. As a result of tracing are tracing paper, ie speech and expression, modeled on the foreign word or phrase.

Depending on the structure of any language element is copied, tracing paper are divided into word-formation, phraseological and semantic. When word-formative tracings reproduced the morphological structure of words. Phraseological tracings represent word translation of idiomatic phrases. semantic calque called giving way native language was absent from his earlier figurative meaning - modeled on a word of another language .. As with other types of borrowing, trace values are not always fixed in the language. Derivational tracing usually simultaneously also semantic, as created by word translation pomorfemnogo copies by the word-source semantic transfer. Tracing thus performs a very important function of language, acting as a conduit of cultural influence. Indeed, tracing, as well as any borrowing, is in some sense the weakness of evidence, ie insufficient funds own language - speaking or unwillingness to make the effort to find these funds; in this sense nekotorm path of least resistance. In particular, tracing - the first sign of poor translation and general lack of proficiency. Conversely, a good knowledge of the language requires the ability to express "idiomatic", ie knowledge of a foreign language phrases ready, Avoids tracing (ie word translation) designs native language. Semantic tracing can not always be distinguished from the similar but independent semantic development, as there are semantic shifts, which are regular and perhaps even universal. Examined.Wordbilding tracings are inaccurate: the translation of one morpheme can be transmitted approximate equivalent. Sometimes trace words bear the imprint of his "artificial" origin.

So, in this case tracing - the literal translation of the elements of Russian words and expressions to the conservation of morphological structure: house of rest ' holiday home '. To create a word in the English language, tracing paper is borrowed from another language only the principle of the implementation of this concept, ie only etymological structure corresponding foreign word, the same word formation material are purely English or foreign language morpheme organically included in the English vocabulary. For example, Five - year - plan - detailed tracing Russian sustainable denominative combination ' five-year plan 'or' five-year plan '. Tracing hearsay phenomenon is not particularly frequent; more often when you pass a value of foreign language words used or the selection of an existing approximately exact verbal equivalent or explanatory translation. For example, the Russian ' individual farmer 'is transmitted through explaining translation Individual Peasant , ' voluntary Sunday '- Voluntary Sunday time . tracings and transcription as a means of borrowing should be distinguished from methods of the same name translation. Not differing in its mechanism, they differ in their outcomes: the translation is no increase in the dictionary, whereas borrowing in language there are new lexical units.

3) interesting life loanwords in their language borrowed. Many of the borrowings under the influence of the system in which they entered, undergo significant phonetic, grammatical and even semantic changes, adapting, so to phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic laws of the host language, ie assimilate.

Degree of assimilation can be very different and depends because how long was borrowing, whether it was oral or through the book how common words and so on. Degree of assimilation depends on the historical conditions for the development of each individual word, the time of borrowing, the nature of borrowing, communicative significance of words and stuff.

According to the degree of assimilation of borrowings can be divided into:

a) fully assimilated , ie all relevant morphological, phonetic and orthographic norms borrowed language and perceived as speaking English, not foreign words;

b) partially assimilated , ie remaining in its foreign pronunciation, spelling or grammatical forms;

c) partially assimilated and denoting concepts associated with other countries and have no English equivalent . For example, from the Russian Steppe, Rouble, verst .

The process of assimilation can be so profound that foreign origin of such words does not feel native English speakers and is found only through etymological analysis. This is particularly true, for example, the Scandinavian and early Latin borrowings type get 'get', skill 'skill', sky 'sky', skirt 'skirt', skin 'skin', they 'they', street 'street', etc. Unlike fully assimilated and learned borrowings partially assimilated foreign-language units retain traces of their foreign origin as phonetic, grammatical and semantic features, for example, Taiga , Tundra , Rouble , knout and other borrowings of the Russian language, denoting the British alien realities and concepts. In order to adequately describe them in the dictionaries of the English language is widely used by lexicographers encyclopedic information, reports on the places of distribution, forms of existence, the methods of application, etc. designated objects and phenomena. Thus, in interpreting the words Taiga , Tundra , along with an indication of the generic characteristics and distinctive features, allowing to see the specifics of the data and the difference compared to the realities of the most intimate and known to English speakers realities, provides guidance climatic zone, the geographical area: Taiga - swampy coniferous forest of Siberia, beginning where the Tundra ends; Tundra - treeless Plain Characteristic of arctic and subarctic regions. Description borrowed into English names currency type rouble also suggests indication as to what is the monetary unit has a definite place in the general system of monetary units, and the country in which it is in circulation: Rouble - See money table: 100 kopecks, Russia.

Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements starts with introducing them to the language translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technology transfer specifically foreign names. When translating words and expressions with unknown associative value, as well as the translation of names realities can be applied transcription, tracing and explanatory translation (transfer value of the foreign word or phrase means native language without saving motivations and forms). When tracing and transcription must sometimes resort to comments. Can also be applied technique is a variation of an explanatory translation and tracing - replacing associative values. However, this does not preclude the need to comment. Abuse of transcription and translation methods as tracings clog language. When strange motivation transcription and tracing without comments are not allowed as a translation in the strict sense, in this case no.

 

1.4 INTEREST IN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

 

In the long - calm and turbulent - life there is communication between related and unrelated peoples, and languages - related and unrelated - like a second Rodney stretch strings interferences and interchange. There are loan words, foreign language to borrow. But gradually assimilate these words and how to dissolve in the new language environment, and yet loanword very long, and sometimes his whole life bears the imprint of former existence, the imprint in thinking, feelings, perceptions of other people.

Understand the historical ties of different countries and peoples in the nature of these links help loanwords. They turn into a kind of milestones, milestones civilization, sociology, and, of course, a milestone for communication of different nations.

Words penetrating into other languages - is not just traces of interlingual contacts, but it's pretty much traces of communication people, and documenting the fact of communication, and often the very nature of communication. How to meet different people? Maintained friendships or enmity? How were the people who gave their word to another language?

Words depicting ancient contacts and save in a foreign language, albeit in a modified form already, can tell a lot of stories of peoples encountered on its historical path.

In the period of 1812-1814 Europe met Russian army, including the Russian Cossacks, as the army - a liberator from the Napoleonic invasion. The actions of Napoleon - French Emperor already - progressive motives were in the past. At this time, the future Decembrist Fyodor Glinka made a very important point in his "Letters of a Russian officer": "It is indisputable that the glory of the people of the price and gives shine his language." F. Glinka but not emphasized a very important role at the time of the Russian army, the army - the liberator of the European peoples. When Tsarist Russia changed that high role to the role of gendarme of Europe (1815-1831), the interest in Russia, Russian culture, Russian language began to fade. But the humanistic foundations of Russian culture, Russian literature and felt during the reign of the conservative forces in Russia. That's why this seems a significant problem of the influence of Russian literature on world literature and on certain literary trends in different countries. Thanks to translations (at different times and in different countries to a greater or lesser extent, "exact") knowledge of Russian literature "overtakes" the Russian language. A complex interaction of cultures in which the language of Russian literary source appeared as a reflection of the target language. World of ideas and images of Russian literature suffered the inevitable losses in the interpretation of a foreign language and at the same time, entering into another linguistic form, a foreign language is enriched with new concepts, ideas, images. For example, through the translation of novel by the great Russian writer Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" in the English word penetrated nihilist ' nihilist '.

In the depths of Russian society was formed progressive political thought: the Decembrists raznochintsi Democrats, Populists, the Bolsheviks. Lays the foundation for a new socialist society, with whom were born new concepts and new names. Great October Socialist Revolution led to a stream of new political, consumer terminology for which there was no equivalent in any language. Her borrowed, conceptualized, evaluated all nations.

In 1922, England was held kinda questioning among major libraries. Objective of this questionnaire was to investigate the question of the penetration of Russian literature and Russian language in England as an indicator of Russian cultural influence. To this end, questionnaires were sent to the largest public libraries in London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. More than a third of those surveyed libraries (in the twelfth) Russian books out completely; of the remaining twenty-one - there were only eleven textbooks and dictionaries of the Russian language. Seven libraries was not more than fifteen Russian books, three - there were a few more than fifteen. Single, relatively rich Russian books library was London Public Library (London Library), but in other (except for the British Museum) Russian books collected by the time there was little, and their selection was very casual.

The Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 - sacred, just war against fascism - sparked a new wave of interest in Russia - Soviet Union and the Russian language, Russian and Soviet politics, culture, science, technology.

Considerable interest in the study of Russian language showed up in England during the First World War. It then began to teach at many private schools. Thereafter, the number of schools with Russian language has dropped dramatically - in 1939 there were only 20. Universities in russistic much earlier made steady, albeit modest position. Since 1965, the Russian language teaching in the UK has received widespread. Sharply increased interest in Russian language and reassessment of views on the role of the Russian language in schools in European countries while associated with the success of the Russian people in space exploration. According to one of the Danish teachers: "That which could not even make a brilliant Russian literature, did the Soviet satellites and Gagarin's flight." When released into orbit the first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, have dramatically increased the interest in Russian language, Russian science and technology. However, despite this, we know that students who study Russian language in schools, much less than learning French or German, although the number of schools teaching russkoo language in 1967, there were about 600. In 1978, 28,000 people studied Russian 40 universities and 802 schools in England. And in the United States in 1993, studied Russian language about 44,000 students. Figure is small compared to the number of students who engaged in Spanish (533,000), French (272 000) and German (133,000) languages.

In September 1960, in England, a commission was established under the chairmanship of Prof.. N. Annan. Task of the commission was to "explore the possibility of expanding the teaching of the Russian language in schools and other educational institutions of the United Kingdom and do on these issues specific recommendations" (Jakobson H. M. Why Study English? AATSEEL Publication, University of Arisona, Tueson, 1966, p. 3 -4). The Commission presented an extensive report, which recommended to bring the teaching of the Russian language to the level of German. Solving this problem seen Annan Commission to the French language and the Latin "made room", losing in the school curriculum required number of hours Russian language. The report considered that 25,000 students learning Russian yazykeu need 1,500 teachers and offered annually prepare 120 teachers of the Russian language. In 1960-1961 in England, there were about 300 teachers of the Russian language. The main centers of Russian language study in England at that time were Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, London, Birmingham, Leeds. It should be noted independent school Slavic and Oriental Studies, University of London and Holborn College in London, is actively engaged in the development of technical means of teaching foreign languages, including Russian.

In the scientific and advocacy book "Why learn Russian?", Released in the U.S. in 1966, noted that "the practical applicability of the Russian language includes a wide range of career opportunities. Knowing it - a necessary tool for many posts in the federal government, private business, librarianship, research institutions involved in both public and natural sciences, as well as, increasingly, in the field of mass communication. And of course, a recognized need for qualified teachers ... In the immediate professional value of the Russian language should not forget that the mastery of them highly enriched, for this huge purely cultural acquisition. " Increasingly in the international public opinion perpetuate the idea of beauty, wealth, expressiveness, the sonority of the Russian language.

Reportedly Presses, in 1970 the Russian language has become one of the working languages of the International Basketball Federation, the International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS) and other organizations. Notable players while Robert Fischer (USA) and Bent Larsen (Denmark) well owned Russian language, recognizing the leading position of the Soviet chess school. American astronauts studied Russian language, preparing for space flight, in which participated along with them Soviet cosmonauts.

Russian language, according to the great Russian poet Pushkin, "so flexible and powerful in its speed and means so coenobitic mimic and in its relations to foreign languages," and he has an impact on other languages. In watching the Pushkin Russian Language coenobite allocated, ie its ability to links to networking and mutual enrichment. "Alien language does not extend his sword and fire, but its own abundance and excellence." And then Pushkin drew attention to the influence of the language requirement: advanced literature, trade legislation. Consequently, the international role of language determine ideology, culture, the economy, which has the nation. Life is defined by the words of the affairs of the people (Full Pushkin. Cit. Op.: 10 tons - Moscow, Leningrad, 1949, v. 7, p. 199).

 

2 DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN words in English to the period

 

Most researchers of Russian influence on English vocabulary divides into two great periods - borrowing prerevolutionary and Soviet era. There is also a classification into three periods: 1) before Peter I, 2) from Peter I to pre-revolutionary period, and 3) the period of the Great October Socialist Revolution to the present day. In Ph.D. thesis VV Akulenko interaction history Russian language with the languages of the West (including English) is divided into four periods.

The first period covers the influence of ancient language of Kievan Rus era in Old and Middle English part.

The second period of Russian influence on English, associated with the development of trade and political relations between Russia and England, the growing might of Russian gosudorstva begins the second half of XVI and continues until the middle of the XIX century.

The third period begins with the 60-ies of the XIX century and continued until 1917. The focus in this period are changes in economic and social relations in Russia, all the growing struggle of the revolutionary forces against the forces of reaction, the great achievements in the development of national science and culture.

Fourth period of the borrowing language is Russian Soviet era. You can talk about a new stage in the development of political, social and economic Russian vocabulary, as well as further growth of its international importance in the post-war period due to the emergence of the mighty camp of peace, democracy and socialism, as well as in connection with the creation of the UN, where the international language was declared Russian along with English, French, Spanish and Chinese.

Today we can speak of the fifth post-Soviet era.

1. The first period . Since ancient times, there was mutual consideration English, French and Russian peoples to each other. Kievan state was extremely broad connections with different peoples of Asia and Europe, including the ancient British. In the XI century Novgorod was known in England primarily as a supplier of furs, jewelry. By this time the marriage and Vladimir Monomakh world the daughter of King Harold of England. Information of the time mean. However, the historical evidence suggests that Kievan Rus was known Germanic countries. Level of culture of Kievan Rus was so high that Western foreigners believed Kiev rival of Constantinople. In ancient Russia had extensive political connections to all European countries. Of course, under such circumstances, the ancient Russian state is very significant and should be the role of his tongue. Especially when you consider that the high culture of Kievan Rus had deep roots in the distant past, even "before the IX century Russian people had come a long way in their economic, social, political and cultural life", as stressed by the researcher of ancient Russia Academician B. D. Greeks / Greeks BD Struggle for Russia establish their State, page 65 /. However, borrowing from the Russian language were not numerous in the English language and convergence in this era did not happen, although it seems very likely that in that era Russian language could have some influence on the vocabulary of the English language.

This hypothesis is based on the following data: between ancient Rus and Britain of that era were beaten pretty close ties. How else to explain the fact that after the conquest of England by Scandinavians expelled sons of English King Edmund Ironsides (Edmubd I the Ironside, 981 - 1016) found refuge at the court of the prince of Kiev. After the Norman conquest of England and the death of King Harold and his wife and daughter also searched for shelter in Kievan Rus. If it had not been previously established links between ancient Rus and Britain, it is unlikely that these exiles British royal family went to seek refuge in a far away country.

In the old Germanic languages there are a number of words borrowed at different times of the Slavic languages. The bulk of borrowings from Slavic languages falls on Scandinavian languages and Gothic, the media are in direct contact with the Slavs. As for the Old English language, the number of Slavic borrowings in it is minimal, even less than in the other languages of the West who have acquired a number of Slavic words after the occurrence of an Anglo-Saxon dialects selection in Old English.

As is well known words may far away from the source language, can travel from language to language, communication capturing peoples speaking these languages. Small amount Russianisms hit the Scandinavian languages, and thence passed into Old English. Russian first word that came into language of England chan called tapor - x or taper-zeh, united the Russian and Norwegian words tapor - taper ' ax 'and x ' ax '. It is written on the pages of the chronicle in 1031: taper - x. However, the name of the object in this form are not survived to medium and English period. This vocabulary fact - only use toric, though not least, evidence of Russian-Norwegian and British relations. But the word-Russism not retained in the English language. There exists a thing exists, now wearing a German name AXE ' ax '. English Words Talk 'conversation, conversation'; to Talk 'talk, talk, chatter', etc. back to the root of the Scandinavian tolk of Russian sense (cf. interpreted , explanatory ).

In this regard, it is not quite correct statement prof. Arakin VD that the only Russian word penetrated into English before the XIV century, was sable ' sable ', which spread at the same time in other languages as the expensive fur of this animal got in all countries of the Eastern Slavs.

In English, as in other Germanic languages, in ancient times there are words that have common roots with the words of Slavic languages and seems to have been borrowed from the dialects of the Slavic tribes already in the XII century. It is words like: honey , milk , hemp , plow and other drevneangl. meodu , sovr. Engl. Mead ; drevneangl. henap , sovr. Engl. hemp ; drevneangl. meolk , sovr. Engl. milk ; drevneangl. ploz , sovr. Engl. Plough . Prof. AI Smirnickii allocates earlier Slavic borrowing in Old English: syrce ' shirt ',' shell ',' mail 'is derived from starosl. sork ; Compare Russian. ' shirt '. The word is found in Beowulf and other written records.

It is difficult to tell which is the Slavic language penetrated these borrowings in English and if they penetrate directly from the Slavs to the Anglo-Saxons or the Scandinavian languages. Saxons faced with the Slavs still on the continent, to the settlement of the British Isles. With Scandinavian tribes Slavs also touched since ancient times in the Baltic Sea. In English and Scandinavian languages meet the same Slavic borrowing is difficult to say whether they penetrated directly from the Slavs in each of these languages, or first fell to the Scandinavians, and then from there to the Anglo-Saxons. Clarification of this issue is further complicated by the fact that the Scandinavian ancient written sources - later than the British, and therefore can not be traced, what form have these borrowings in the Scandinavian languages, at least in the period when they occur in Old English. This complicates and figuring out what of the Slavic language the word was borrowed. It should be noted that the Slavic languages at that time were still so close that were most dialects of a single language. This is confirmed by the fact that in that era did not draw the line between individual Slavic languages. Therefore, with respect to the earliest borrowing very difficult to tell from what is Slavic language they were taken.

But it would be wrong to keep silent about these words when considering the Russian borrowing because it is possible that these early penetrated borrowing it from the Russian.

By the early borrowings relates word sable . English dictionary word recorded only in the XIV century. However, we can assume that in spoken language it has penetrated much earlier: in the period XII - XIII centuries., As you know, sable takes up more space as a product exchange, performing the function of the monetary unit; moreover, in the source, where the first word is recorded, among the values of the noun " sable ', it also gives the meaning of the adjective " black ". This fact also suggests that the word existed in English for quite a long time and managed to buy it added value ' black 'and' mourning dress '.

2. SECOND PERIOD . Friendly relations between the peoples of the stronger, deeper than their mutual understanding of each other. Language - the basis of this understanding. Hence the interest that is the story of mastering foreign languages in every alien environment. This story can be an important indicator of the general (and not only linguistic) culture of the people and to the same extent serve as a testament to his acquaintance with the real people, education, the arts of those countries and the countries with whom it has certain historical interests. Every language can be traced, like archaeological strata, temporary "layers" and from mark milestones, to find the traces of the people's life and his new life, traces of friendly contacts between at birth and quarrels, cooperation and hostility, war and peace. As we have already noted, international relations are developing according to the social and geographic conditions Sgiach. And the earlier times are subject to our attention, the more limited and honey lennee fold relationship between distant governmental peoples from our modern point of view. Then there was almost no means of communication. Sa fact mym geographical location plays an important role. Politics and economics, ie arising diploma cal and trade ties, define linguistic society tion.

In England, earlier met with the Russian language than Russian state - with English. Throughout the XVI-XVII centuries, interest in Russian language was so great that in some countries, in different contexts and for different reasons appeared quite serious recording linguistic and cross-cultural nature, made by foreigners to visit Russia. Our well-known Soviet researcher BA Larin says three foreign source for the history of the Russian language and Russian international relations XVI-XVII centuries. These are:

1) "Dictionary of Muscovites" (French-Russian, 1586);

2) "Notebook" - Russian-English Dictionary by Richard James (1618-1620)

3) "Russian grammar" Henry Ludolph (Oxford, 1696).

It is interesting to note that these records have brought to live our days Kholmogorskaya colloquialisms end of the XVI century and live Moscow speech in all its many colors and variety. Old Holmogory and Archangel (New Holmogory) were trading cities with fairly mixed population leniem. Therefore, in the records of James R. that reflect dialect vocabulary of the Russian language can be traced staronovgorodsky, the Volga, Moscow, southeastern tion says it professional fishermen and hunters, some words from the language of the Nenets, Chud, Komi. R. James wrote words and phrases directly hear them from the Russian population, and explaining them, thus noted singular singularity climate, landscape, flora and fauna, nature clothes, dishes, home buildings, etc. Thus, the word mammoth James interpreted as follows: Mammoth - this elephant, kotorgo nobody saw that lives underground, breaking itself moves, and are therefore under his fangs and horns and bones of which make bombs in Russia. Based on the stories of local residents, the author reports information about the art of bone carving and distributing a game of checkers in Russia. James R. manuscript, which by completeness of the data and the subtleties of their phonetic observation is one of the very important sources for the study of Russian speech early XVII century, is stored in the Library Bodleian at Oxford. About the growing interest Englishmen to Russia indicates the emergence of a number of geographic and ethnographic descriptions of Moscow Russia, whose authors were travelers Willoughby, Jenkins, Eden, Cook. The pages of these works appear early Russianisms, reflecting the greater part of the characteristic features of Russian life.

Stable relations between the Russian and English peoples established only in the XVI century, and also wore initially very limited. In this distant time in England began to meet people pretty well assimilated Russian spoken language, much better than they succeeded in one or two centuries later. This fact does not seem surprising, if we recall the strong trade and diplomatic relations between Britain and Moskoskim state in this era and the real interest of London merchants in maintaining ongoing business relationships with the Russian population. On the other hand, knowledge of foreign languages, including English, in Muscovy, was then a very lively impulse to Russian language classes foreigners living here. Previously fragmented feudal and oppressed Tatars, after the unification of Russia Ivan III appears to Europe as a strong, unified gosudorstvo. This causes both the interest and concern of other European countries and the rich Muscovy drawn from many countries ambassadors with various tasks and goals.

Political reasons have caused searches northern trade routes. The regular relations with Britain was laid in 1528, when Britain stopped Russian ambassadors to Spain on the way to the court of Charles V. In the cases referred to the English court of the former correspondence between Russian princes and English kings in the reign of Edward VI, 1547 - 1554 gg., But in the archive no letters, no answers. So systematic borrowing Russian English words begin in the second half of the XVI century, when installed in direct political and economic relations between Britain and Russia. Cause of the Anglo-Russian encounters - the rapid growth of British imperialism and its aggressive policy, the fight against England with Portugal, Spain, Holland and other countries for the seizure of new lands. England needed a powerful navy, and its forests for shipbuilding she did not have. Thus, in connection with the development of capitalism in England and the expansion of sea trade where there is an interest to the Moscow State.

Accident history explains trade agreement between Britain and Russia, concluded under Ivan IV Grozny. In 1552, one of the ships of the expedition Willoughby - Chancellor visited Russian land (Holmogory). In 1553 a British expedition of three ships went in search of the northern route to China. Starting a direct rapprochement between Russia and Britain assumed August 24, 1553, when the first ship of King Edward VI - «Edward Good Company" was anchored in the harbor of St. Nicholas in the mouth of the Northern Dvina. It was the only survivor of the expedition ship and its captain Richard Chancellor came to Moscow was very graciously received by Ivan IV, the king gave a charter of their king, and March 15, 1554 was released from Moscow, received Har ment monopoly on the right to trade. Expedition undertaken Chancellor and his companions, was designed to find new markets, since, according to the British themselves, aengliyskie products had little demand among the peoples and countries around them, and it was decided to equip the three ships for exploration and discovery in the northern parts light.

England's interest in trade with Russia was extremely loud. In 1554 in London's King Philip and Queen Mary approved the establishment of Moscow ("Moscow Company ") English merchants, leaving behind a lot of notes on the Moscow State XVI century. These notes represent a huge interest for the study of the general history of the Anglo-Russian contacts, since that time Russian sources revealed very little. Moscow trading company aimed to establish and develop trade with Moscow. Important trade route through the White Sea, the first outdoor Chanslerom Richard in 1553, made it possible to establish direct contacts between Britain and Russia. Two years later the Moscow-based company received permission to free trade throughout Russia. In Moscow were sent ambassadors and representatives of trading companies. The northern route through the White Sea in Holmogory, and thence to the "king of Muscovy" were merchants and businessmen come to conclude trade deals. English merchants widely used opportunities available to them, traveling through Russia to Persia and Central Asia. Already in 1558, the year of accession to the throne of Queen Elizabeth I, Anthony Jenkinson reached Bukhara. Since the beginning of trade relations between Russia and Britain are tied regular and fairly strong (up to 1649) Political and diplomatic ties. Economic penetration was accompanied by the departure of a number of embassies. The British Government in XVI - XVII centuries cared for the preparation of permanent staff interpreters Russian language that could serve London diplomatic office. In the Russian archives remaining documents about British youths, and to this end I studied in the Russian state. Preserved as British documents certifying the existence of official translators in London with the Russian language; along with the usual translation work they performed the role of government interpreters during visits Russian embassies. In addition to a small group of persons receiving formal instruction related to their knowledge of Russian language, this knowledge spread to a much wider and, above all, a merchant environment. Many of the merchants and diplomats had acute observation. They often lived in Moscow for a long time and tried to learn Russian language, to get acquainted with Russian laws and customs. Arrived in the Russian commercial agent in London "Moscow Company "linguistic isolation in conditions more easily assimilate the Russian language, the smaller of the Russian population was spread knowledge of the English language, and soon could not only speak in Russian, but also to make a commercial record in the Russian language or understand the Russian legal document. This was, for example, John Merrick, who played a significant role in the history of diplomatic relations between Moscow and the English in the second half of the XVI century. Father John Merrick brought him to Moscow as a child. Here he lived for many years in the alien environment and then became an independent agent in London trading company in Moscow and Yaroslavl. It is so well known in the Moscow government circles that often gave him a very important assignments diplomatic nature. In his English letters Merrick liked to show off some Russian catchword or phrase. In letter to Boris Godunov (1603), he writes: «holop tvoi hospodarev to the end of my days» /1, p. 80/.

In the decades after between England and the Russian state-established diplomatic and trade relations, these ties have expanded thanks to the patronage of Ivan the Terrible. British special privileges in Russia: English merchants had donated a house in Moscow, there was organized a trading company, the duty-free trade, British merchants received charters freely with the goods come in all Russian pier, travel around the Russian lands and live on them. By the end of the XVI century (1589) Boris Godunov in literacy Elizabeth I give permission only one British trade in Russia. Russian service consist British doctors, pharmacists, and later military and naval affairs of the master. By 1617 Russia lived 18 British merchants selling their wares, and to 1626, there were already 22. Merchants people needed a Russian language as a means of tion. The reports of British diplomats and merchants in their genus tion English increasingly interspersed Russian words. On his return to England merchants and entrepreneurs in their reports in detail about his impressions of what he saw in Russia, often using in their reports Russian words for objects and concepts of Russian life.

Between the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible (1530-1584) and Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) originated diplomatic correspondence. One of the first messengers of Elizabeth I and Ivan IV - Jerome Horsey (in Russian his name Ulyanov Yerem Horsham) first visited Russia in 1573, and then came to Moscow in 1584 and 1586 and 1592, respectively. He studied Russian language, compare it with related languages are compared and evaluated: "Although I was only mediocre grammar and I only knew a little Greek, the similarity of the latter with Russian helped me in a short time to master it. Russian language - the richest and elegant guage in the world. "

Economic, political and purely linguistic in grades explain that increased interest in alien speech, then the damping of such interest. So, the less known in chu zhih edges English, especially English torus govye people studied the languages of other countries. Awareness in English business partners rented needs to learn from the British completely alien languages. In the XVI-XVII century England was particularly interested in Russian language. According to the stories of the British, who were returning to their homeland from Moscow, were interested in the British government circles, government interpreters mastered Russian speech. Jerome Horsey notes interest in Russian language the Queen Elizabeth I. Considering brought from Moscow privilege of English merchants, Queen interested beautifully adorned manuscript asked what sound is this or that letter. Russian languages are English Queen "famous and richest language in the world" (the Famous and Most copious language of the World), it seemed, not with measures some modern Russian language teachers abroad, and some are not likely difficult language. Maybe Russian relations solution sounds and letters, is very simple compared with ang liyskim language allowed Elizabeth to say, "I'd soon learned it" (I Could Quickly learn it). It should be noted that during the Renaissance in England and in the aristocratic and merchant environment was spread knowledge of foreign languages gentleman wrote the XVI century Italian poetry, spoke Latin and French; itinerant merchant knew virtually no less than four languages.

"Russian grammar" Mr. Ludolph. Most Russian borrowings of this period enter the English language written by - through various descriptions, reports, diaries Englishmen who visited Russia. Very many of russizmov the period are included in the English monolingual dictionaries. Of course, much of the Russian borrowings appeared in English because of the difficulty, and sometimes it is impossible to convey in words the English language is the peculiarity of the concepts that were expressed Russian words. First Russian language sources for foreigners, strangers, or, as they say now, in Russian as a foreign language tion, presented the Russian language in conversational terms, since the main purpose was to teach and to learn to speak in Russian. Remarkable interest in speech, its sound side. Appearance in England XVII century Russian manuscripts and dictionaries can not testify about the actual interest of the English to Russian speech in this era, and therefore is not accidental that the first printed grammar of the Russian language for foreigners was published in Oxford at the end of the same century. It was a "Russian Grammar" ("Grammatica Russica ") Saxon native William Henry Ludolph (1655 - 1712), written in Latin, and appears particularly important for the history of Russian cultural relations with countries of Europe. His earliest English biographers mention that he acquired some knowledge of the Russian language in England before he was able to make a trip to Russia in nachade 90s XVII century. A few years after his return to England he published his remarkable book in Oxford. The book contains a lot of information about the customs, nature, economy and culture of Russia in the late XVII century. The author distinguishes between old Slavonic and Russian elements in pure speech. He draws attention, for example, that although the spell today, but pronounce it as sevodnya. language material is not limited to the grammatical part: the book contains dialogues, mainly on everyday topics, which are, like the "Dictionary of the Muscovites' and "Russian-English Dictionary" by R. James, valuable material on the Russian colloquial speech. Noteworthy linguistic principles author: Ludolf insists that the rights of the spoken language has been expanded to become commonplace in the books, replacing obsolescent Church Slavonic. Heinrich Ludolf correctly and perceptively understood those currents, the changes that occurred in the Russian language of the XVII century.

Through the word victuals Russian dictionaries authors sought to introduce the life, the life and history of the Russian people and the Russian country, as if thereby demonstrating no discontinuity of language and history, social due completely language and their understanding of this important moment in the science of language and its teaching practice . Studying Russian language, scientists foreigners recorded stories and judgments Russian people.

R . Ludolph believed that his work will serve merchants and travel nicks. Modest considering the study of spoken language only an introduction to the study of language, Ludolf sought to introduce cross-cultural elements in language learning even at this first stage, determining their true importance in the process of networking and mutual understanding of. The choice of the Russian words borrowed ang liyskim language says about a specific character impact nikshego relationship (terms of business, diploma cally language at public ambassadorial talks and trade names of objects). "Russian grammar" Ludolph, indeed, answered the purposes for which it is intended by the author; she was very interested in the scientific world and the Western European it is also widely used in a practical sense for several decades.

Russian literature and borrowing. Due to the strength and reliability of trade relations with Moscow State in this era and frequent exchange of people between the two countries, in England XVI - XVII centuries, even among the general public some words of Russian vocabulary used in English to refer to not only objects trade, but were used in the dramatic, poetic, political writings. So, playwright Thomas Geyvud mentions Russian drink kvas ("The Rush drinks quasse ") in his plays" The Rape of Lucretia "(The Rape of Lucrece, 1608) and "Calling beauty" (The Challenge of Beauty, 1635); the first of them also speaks Russian, adorning their hats sable ("The Russ with Sables Furs his cap »). Mentioned kvass as the poet George Terbervilya in his poetic writings from Moscow, along with words like honey ' Mead ' and odnoryadka ' odnoriadka '. A number of Russian words leads Fletcher in his book about the Russian State (1598), accompanying their interpretations and explanations, such as kvass - "nothing like water, with small amounts of fermented malt"; odnoryadka - peasant "wide dress that descends to most heels and belted sash, made of coarse white or blue cloth. " Thomas Nash, the writer of the same era, caught somewhere Russian pronoun our , and he remembered it, thanks to a chance consonance with his name. in his pamphlet (1596), he resorts to this similarity based on the pun, saying that he had until then will pursue his enemies until they are in front of him on his knees and cry out: " Have mercy on us "(" Pomiloi Nash! " ) / 1, page 80 /. Many Russian words entered the vocabulary of the English language and used by English writers. For example: "Across the Street and back the Haunted Creature strode, not groping as Other Men Were groping in That Gloom but driven forward as the Faithful Though George wielded Behind A" knout ". (Galsworthy.)

Some common Russian language in England at this time also shows the former is probably quite significant at that time in England importing handwritten Russian literature and translation activities beginning Englishman with Russian language. One of the earliest is made even in 1558 Richard Johnson, a very accurate translation of a small Russian ethnographic writings XV century "On chelovetseh unknowing in the eastern town of the country and discord." Brought to England Russian manuscripts were intended to primarily serve as material for the study of Russian language, so they often come across of the alphabet and letters, and other books anyway used for training purposes.

3 Classification of Russian borrowings by designating the concept.

In the extant memories and descriptions of Muscovy, made by the British, found a number of Russian words reflecting the peculiarities of Russian life and polity. Crept into the English language at the time the word on the value of various kinds are trade names of objects, the names of the ruling, class, officers and subordinate persons, establishments, household items names and geographical names.

Among the first borrowing:

1. Names associated with the state ITATION device with the names of the ruling, class, officers and subordinates persons: czar (tzar) ‘царь’, voivode ‘воеовда’, knes ‘князь’, bojar ‘боярин’, moujik ‘мужик’, cossack ‘казак’, opritchina ‘опритчина’, strelscy ‘стрелец’, starosta ‘староста’, ukase ‘указ’, kremlin ‘кремль’, sotnia ‘сотня’, Raskolnik ‘раскольник’.
2. Legend measures of weight, distance, currency: verst ‘верста’, arshin ‘аршин’, pood ‘пуд’, sagene ‘сажень’, rouble ‘рубль’, copeck ‘копейка’, chervonets ‘червонец’.
3. The names of items of clothing and food, as the British smote ekzotizmy: shuba ‘шуба’, kvass ‘квас’, morse ‘морс’, koumiss ‘кумыс’, shchi ‘щи’, borshch ‘борщ’, mead ‘мед’, calash ‘калач’, shashlik ‘шашлык’, kissel ‘кисель’, vodka ‘водка’, starka ‘старка’, nalivka ‘наливка’, nastoika ‘настойка’, bliny ‘блины’ , oladyi ‘оладьи’, okroshka ‘окрошка’.
4. Household words: troika ‘тройка’, izba ‘изба’, telega ‘телега’, peach ‘печь’, balalaika ‘балалайка’, bayan ‘баян’, samovar ‘самовар’, tarantass ‘тарантас’, droshki ‘дрожки’, kibitka ‘кибитка’, makhorka ‘махорка’.
5. Names of natural features of Russia and some animals: steppe ‘степь’, tundra ‘тундра’, taiga ‘тайга’, polinia ’полыня’, suslik ‘суслик’, borzoi ‘борзая’.
6. Religious names: molitva ‘молитва’, obednja ‘обедня’ and other names bezekvivalentnoy Russian realities.

Later appeared in the English language such words borrowed from Russian, kokoshnik ‘кокошник’, khorovod ‘хоровод’, beluga ‘белуга’, obrok ‘оброк’, zolotnik ‘золотник’, otrezok ‘отрезок’, vedro ‘ведро’, matrioshka ‘матрешка’.

A significant portion of borrowings associated with the designation specific to the Russian phenomena, its natural features, etc. However, many of them in the English language over time expanding their value in the sense that it is already beginning to be applied not only in relation to Russia, but outside this context. For example, the word steppe borrowed as the name of a specific geographical landscape of Russia and first was used in the English language only in the description of Russian paintings of nature, travel to Russia. First this word in the English language in 1671. But over time, it becomes important geographical term and is often found in the special art and even English literature: "These Great Steppes Which range Along the feet of the Rocky Mountains "(Irving, W. The Adventures of Capitain Bo nnerville, 1849); "These Rocky Steppes Possess but few streams "(A. K. Jahuston Africa). Word steppe occurs in these combinations: Steppe bird, Steppe travellin G etc. Other Russian geagraficheskie terms are also used not only to describe the natural features of Russia. For example, the word tundra is found in the description of the geographical features of Alaska. The word mammoth borrowed English as the name of a prehistoric animal, first discovered in Russia. The word mammoth is part of a complex word for tree growing in California Mammoth tree (Wellington), as well as the proper name of the Mammoth Cave (Cave in the United States, Kentucky, opened in 1809).

The British were taken from the Russian ship timber, hemp for rope, canvas for sails, as well as furs, skins wax and red fish. The names of fish species previously unknown to the British, entered the English language and used by the British still: sterlet 'starlet', belouga 'Beluga' . Russian words went beyond business reports and entered the vocabulary of the English language. Meeting with Russian and their life in a language bore visiting trade and embassy people here purely Russian realities from different spheres of life nor life, history. Penetrate into the English language and some special terms, for example: siberite (a special kind of ruby), uralite (asbestos slate found in the Urals). In the technical literature there is a term nephtyanye astatki . In some English dictionaries given astatki as refuse petroleum .

Of course, most likely get used names of products and dishes, spread in England. If, before the XVI century the word had spread unconditional sable ' sable ', then back to the XVI century, the number grows Russianisms: kvass, honey and unknown in the Russian language astrakhan ( A strakhan of geographical names "Astrakhan" in value chenii 'doodle'). Penetrate these words of everyday speech in English usage, even in literary and POE -static language.

Later in England spread the word samovar, caviar, balalaika, ditty, towns , etc. It is easy to notice that many of these words reflect the aspects of the social life of Russia, Russian life.

However, the nature of Russian words, and especially the nature of their existence in the English language speaks of distant peoples completely, the lack of direct communication, consumer contact, which was observed in the south weak Vnsk land in Slavic and communication, for example, py mynskogo peoples. Russianisms in English not vzhi valis in folklore and not overgrown shaped frazeolo logical combinations. These were separate ekzotizmy penetrates into obscheliteraturnogo English speech in everyday life not as a result of a wide soprikosno veniya life of nations, and penetrated from the language of business and the scope of diplomatic and economic relations. It was already Intralanguage penetration: from one area to another, the expansion of functions on the nomenclature of the subject as the title of the realities of trading in the name of reality, adopted the English way of life or attracted attention with their uniqueness. Arose as to set special items, the most famous and symbolizing the Russian land, Russian life, presented themselves in the Russian lenii ill-informed British. Russianisms attracting attention wali, interpreted them in some detail, looking for similar (according to R. Chancellor brew -drinking Russian monks, like 'halfpenny el'). All this is evidence of the proof of interest in the Russian word followed by standing la life distant people. But the perception on certain realities ( kvass, honey ) was more in terms of exotic than in terms of real life.

Nature of communication between peoples defines linguistic ties and lexical borrowing. In the middle of the XVIII century in Alaska, and then appeared in California communities of Russian sailors - explorers. Meetings and communication with the local population captures language. Thus, in the language of the Indians Pomo there are a number of words of Russian origin. Loanwords attest to a certain influence and peaceful aspirations of Russian settlers. These words are grouped according to their importance in the areas of: plants, dishes and clothes, household items, appliances, fishing. Pomo Indians, learning to cultivate from Russian bread, and adopted the name of the main cereal crop - Sinitsa ' wheat '. The same phenomenon is observed in the spread of gardening, which gave the name to the Indians and ja. Palka ' apple ' , ' watermelon '.

It is important to emphasize that the initial flow of Russian words most often consists of specific items, ie word denotes a thing.

Here are some words that are included in English from Russian, in chronological order of their borrowing.

Соболь через посредство среднелат. sabellum проникло сначала в старофранц. sable (франц. sable), откуда заимствовано англ. sable и нем. Zobel. Мех соболя от восточных славян попадал во многие страны.

Паром (из пором) первоначально, вероятно, было заимствовано среднеголланд. praem, prame (голланд. praam), а отсюда в 1548 году попало в англ. pram ‘(норвежское) плоскодонное судно’.

Квас заимствовано англ. kvass (1553 год).

Рубль заимствовано всеми европейскими языками, в том числе англ. r(o)uble (1554).

Царь и производные от него царевич, царевна стали англ. tzar, а русск. царица под влиянием нем. Czarin стало англ. tzarina (1555).

Верста (род. множ. верст) заимствовано англ. verst (1555).

Чижик англ. siskin ‘чиж’ (1562).

Мужик англ. moujik (1568), а русск. воевода – англ. voivoda (1570).

Названия видов рыб стерлядь и белуга, прежде не известные англичанам, были заимствованы в 1591 году – sterlet и belouga.

Калач через франц. kalatch пришло в англ. calash (1666).

Русск. господарь (ср. стяженное государь), вероятно, через посредство румынского и франц. языков стало англ. hospodar.

Копейка заимствовано всеми языками и англ. copeck (1698).

Мамонт заимствовано англ. mammoth (1706).

Кнут заимствовано англ. knout (1716 или1772).

Указ англ. ukase (1729).

Астрахань стало англ. astrakhan в значении ‘каракуль’ (1766).

Суслик зарегистрировано в англ. suslik (1774).

Водка заимствовано многими языками: ср. англ. vodka (1802), нем.Wodka, итал. Vodca, испан. vodka.

Дрожки через франц. drojki или drochki стало англ. droshki (1808).

Самовар англ. samovar (1830).

Тундра англ. tundra (1841).

Тройка (лошадей) англ. troika (1842).

(Манная) крупа англ. (manna) croup (1843).

Тарантас англ. tarantas (1850).

Полынья англ. polyna (1853).

 

End of XVII - beginning of XVIII century - it was in the life of Russia period marked not only the internal growth of the country, the development of science, crafts, arts, but but Vym international relations, new contacts. In this era was " суждено

В Европу прорубить окно,

Ногою твердой стать при море.

Сюда по новым им волнам

Все флаги в гости будут к нам,

И запируем на просторе».

(Пушкин А.С. Медный всадник.)

 

These poetic Pushkin's words filled with deep before vision. Communication of our country - economic, cultural and ITATION certainly political - grew and became strong with increasing self-awareness and self-affirmation of our state.

The word represents the people. It is as if his powers Representative of, envoy. Words, we were trying to prove, and can tell about people, their lives, and ha raktere communication with other nations. Loan words may be different, belong to different spheres of everyday life, then come from the language of diplomatic letters, calls, correspondence ( the king, the governor, the decree ) , then come from the language of trade brought people together to buy goods and E ( sable, sturgeon ) , then the walk as ekzotizmy marking alien life, alien NRA you, customs ( borscht, kvass, honey, triple samovar ) . At neighboring nations arise and general concepts, and common names for different things and phenomena. But it is very important to be noted, the initial influx of Russian words often with costs of specific items. And although almost every word seemingly reinforced con crete, visual, tangible object, life borrowings isting words, if it depends on things like this, paradoxically, is not always strong. Thing can may get a new name - a synonym thing can get away from life borrows its people, and then borrowed the word remains only in the history of the language.

There are words, the appearance of which in other languages (the others) has not changed, but they get a new interpretation based on a specific value of the borrowed Russian words. Long ago in the Russian language, the word Archer became history ism. In the Russian State XVI-XVII centuries there exists Vova special troops musketeers. They played a significant role in pre-Petrine time, headed by military moves since Ivan the Terrible. However, archers were in the camp of conservative forces, led by Princess Sophia. Sagittarius all close to Peter saw their rotation beef, obedient party Sophia. In English, the impact arises figurative meaning: Archer - henchman . In this, but not only, meaning functioning Russian historicism in English.

Expansion and strengthening of cultural ties between Russia and Western countries occurred significantly more BESTROM pace than going to study Russian language abroad. Academician MP Alekseev wrote: "In the later period of our relations with the Western world attitude toward the Russian language for foreigners has changed dramatically: in the XVI - XVII centuries have been studying German, Dutch, French, and primarily the British; but foreigners XVIII and XIX century even, somehow comes into contact with Russian life, studied Russian language with difficulty and reluctance, and the difficulties they are often increased, better known in Russia c s foreign languages. " It is curious that the British of all Europeans were the least susceptible to the Russian language and that the number of Russian experts in England then measured units.

Assimilation . Russian borrowing, crept into the vocabulary of the English language, like any other borrowings are converted to their appearance and sound grammatical structure, obeying the laws of internal development of the English language. This well can be seen in words such as kopeck, knout (pronounce: Naut ) , sterlet , etc., which shape the sound according to the laws preobrzovan English pronunciation. You can see how the shape of sound words, obeying pronunciation norms of English, and the longer the loan word exists in English, the big changes it undergoes. For example, the pronunciation of the vowel «a» in the word sable undergone the same change to which all long vowels underwent the so-called shift velivomu vowels (a> ei). Russian soft consonants in borrowed words do not differ from the solid, as English language is not peculiar to the palatalization of consonants ( Rouble , Steppe ). There is a transfer of stress, drop-out of the final vowel, etc. If we trace the sound changes faced by Russian borrowings in English. we will see that they really are converted into their sound shape on the internal laws of the English language. However, this concerns mainly those borrowings were kotorae or become more commonplace. Borrowing same that are used very rarely, mostly retain their shape Rusko, in their pronunciation observed large fluctuations. This is reflected in fixing their dictionaries.

Borrowed words are converted and its grammatical structure. On the example of Russian borrowings can be seen that most plural nouns borrowed issued by type of English, using the «s» or «es». Pronunciation of this closure is characterized by the same reference conditions as in native English words: mammoths , Steppes , Sables , ukases etc. Plurals of nouns are closely linked to the question of the penetration depth of borrowing. The most commonly used in the English plural form of borrowing with English suffix «s», «es». Rarely used nouns often retain Russian plural form: strelez - strelzey .

Russian borrowed words form derivatives of the same type, model, and that the British: silken , narodism , decembrism , Permian . For English, characterized by a special method of word formation - without joining affixed elements (so-called conversion). By type of English words and Russian borrowings subject to this: Mammoth Cave , to knout , sable (as an adjective) etc. Said in regard to the development of English borrowings that period applies to Russian borrowings which came into English in subsequent periods.

THIRD PERIOD . In the XIX century, a gradual transition to borrowing words denoting concepts, phenomena and ideas. British popular magazines often placed articles about Russia, which were used Russian words, especially those related to political life. In Russia, the booming industry, and with it the working class; advanced Russian people struggle against the tsarist autocracy, the growth of people's democratic liberation movement in Russia and the further strengthening of the revolutionary movement in the XIX - early XX century were reflected in such English words borrowed from Russian language as nihilist ' nihilist ', nihilism, Ni hilistic, intelligentsia ' intelligentsia '. Words narodnik ' populist ', narodism appear in English in connection with the development of the populist movement in Russia. Cadet ' cadet 'enters as a member of the abbreviated name of the bourgeois Constitutional Democratic Party in Russia. Russian language vocabulary quickly enriched by various neoplasms, neologisms, which express the social, societal concepts. These new words particularly intense usvaivayutya of Russian language Western European languages, including English, as British public was keenly interested political events in Russia.

FY Priyma wrote that since the second half of the XIX century Russian literature in the West is the subject of serious and in-depth studies. Translators and popularizers of Russian literature are such writers as Mrime in France, William Ralston in England. Individual Russian borrowings penetrated into English thanks to translations of works of the great Russian writers (eg, the word nihilist of Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons"), as well as publications in the English newspapers and magazines articles on Russia, which were used Russian words, especially those related to political life, such as: decembrists ' Decembrists ', ZEMSTVO ' district council ', etc.

Of course, the roots of words such as nihilist, Decembrist , intelligentsia - Latin and, although in the English language prior to their appearance were the words with these roots, however, perfectly legitimate to consider these words borrowed from the Russian language, as value that they currently have appeared on Russian soil, due to the Russian reality and in that its meaning has penetrated into other languages. These words are borrowed from the Russian language, as emerged in Russia in connection with certain phenomena of Russian reality, and as such entered into other languages. Word Decembrist penetrated the English language in connection with the December armed uprising against autocracy and serfdom in St. Petersburg December 14, 1825, which was attended by members of secret revolutionary societies. Word Decembrist (and then Decembrism ) entered the language as the name angliyskty political phenomenon, it was a milestone in the development of revolutionary thought and revolutionary movements. Word Decembrism relates to the world of ideas, it is untranslatable, has no match. Decembrism - a phenomenon for which there is no other name name. That's why "word ideas" are stronger in verbal turnover and mother, and the borrowing language.

Take another example. Word nihilist (from Lat. nihil 'nothing' + it. suffix - ist) French dictionaries note with 1761, and nihilism - since 1801. In this era of their existence both words combined value of 'denial of any faith. " On Russian soil, they have quite different interpretation. The life of these words in the Russian language was a new life, these words were born a second time. The invention of words nihilist and nihilism attributed IS Turgenev, but the author of the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862), creating an image of a nihilist Bazarov, only popularized the term in that era. Themselves in occasional use words already existed in the speech and turnover, and the press. Nihilism - it 'negation of all universally recognized (all norms, principles), complete skepticism. " It is in this sense formed on Russian soil word nihilism is included in other languages and there to express a definite ideological direction.

There is another word, once alien to the Russian language, which language s what gave a new form with new content. This word intelligentsia . The Latin word intelligens 'understanding, intelligent, knowledgeable' intelligent and French have the same meaning not just learned the Russian language and Russian language actively osmysleny.V intellectual means' a person belonging to the intelligentsia. " But in any language Latin intelligentia 'understanding, cognitive power' as the French intelligence 'mind, intelligence, Thinking', has no generalizing social values that originated in the Russian language in the 60 - 70 years of the last century. Active social Recycling borrowed words in Russian gave a new collective value required in the social classification of Russian society. intelligentsia - a new social layer associated with the revolutionary-democratic era. In this collective, social meaning Russism intellectuals and entered into many languages, including language source - the French, where there is no corresponding its French equivalent. The need for such a word oschyuschalas. More Balzac searched word to express this concept.

There are household words associated with the inner life of the people. Troika , balalaika , soup - these words are often needed when talking about Russian way of life. Such words are like strokes, scenic swabs from genre-home pictures of Russian life. But there is a word of wide public range. Their sound is not confined to the native language. Such words are referred to the concepts they endure beyond the native language of the country. This is not the description of domestic touches and words associated with the public consciousness - and national and universal. In the XIX century these words were Decembrist , intelligentsia .

In the early twentieth century were borrowed Duma ' thought '(1905), pogrom ' Mayhem '(1905). Words thought 'representative electoral law or administrative agency nodatelnoe Tsarist Russia 'or district council 'local, limited the rights of self-government in the central provinces of pre-revolutionary Russia ary 'say about a particular state head unit, some restriction of monarchical power. No matter how insignificant the process of democratization of power and thought, and the district council, these Russianisms characterized in a certain way a new era in Russian public life. Ideological charge carried the words, although very different in their content and social value - Decembrist ( Decembrist ) and nihilist ( nihilist ) . Words Decembrist nihilist can not be called exoticisms-Russianisms. Although they characterized the development of Russian political thought, but were not limited to only Russian life, Russian history, sociology.

In the third period increases the amount borrowed English scientific terms such as Periodic Law , Chernozem , uralite , volhynite .

Apart from the above words in the XIX century in English and penetrate other Russian words. Many of these words, such as ispravnik, miroed, obrok, barschina, partisan , and others are currently in the Russian language and historical terms in English are found only in historical descriptions or historical novels.

Having considered the Russian borrowing, crept into the English language from the earliest times to the Great October Socialist Revolution, we can conclude that the nature of these loans is very diverse, though still the predominant role played by words denoting concepts of the government, life and natural features of Russia. Several borrowing reflects the cultural and trade ties between Russia and Britain. In the XIX century in Russia begin to penetrate into the increasing number of political terms that appear in Russia in connection with the growth of a political movement. They are few, but they have already penetrated into other languages, thus acquiring an international character. This shows that the political events and social movement in Russia caused worldwide interest.

Birth October. FOURTH PERIOD. Occurs between languages live communication, interference. Already MV Lomonosov said path dictionary borrowing - neighborhood people, trade and other historical contacts. More recent observations have allowed Russian scientist SK Bulich noted at the end of the XIX century, that it was due to contacts between peoples, "we do not find any language free from debt." We have already mentioned the link between language and history, language and a certain era, a certain ideology, a certain way of life: the life of the people is reflected in its language. Language, being directly related to human activity, reflects the changes in the industrial, social, political and other spheres of his life. First and foremost, these changes are reflected in the vocabulary of the language. When life is changing, and changing something in the language. Some of the words go first, others arise. These new words to express new concepts, new developments and realities. This creates a new history of the language. It is reflected in new words new life.

Particularly strong changes occur in the dictionary at the turning points of history. At such times, the language's vocabulary is in a state of rapid motion. Feed acquired and lost, leaving the use of words especially swift. Major global events are reflected not only in the language of the people in the stories which they occurred but also affect the languages of other nations. The greater, larger event, change, achievement, occurring in one country, the more attention they cause more interest in other countries, and the sooner the related ideas, concepts, and words denoting them penetrate into other languages. Only since the end of the XIX century in the English language, as in other languages, from Russian penetrate words associated with the growth of social and political liberation movement. In the twentieth century, when the socialist state was formed, Russian political terms have become known throughout the world, entered the international use and joined the vocabulary of most languages. In English, Russian steel commonly used words such as bolshevik, menshevik and others, demonstrating the interest of the British people to the political developments in Russia.

VV Akulenko rightly emphasizes that since the beginning of the twentieth century in the Russian underground and semi-legal literature, the writings of VI Lenin otshlifovyvat emergency of international terminology of Marxist-Leninist philosophy and party building - fist , Bolshevism , democratic centralism , frames , cell , self-criticism , a party line , etc. This terminology came into wide use and was largely borrowed from Western European languages after the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Changes caused by the Great October Socialist Revolution in the industrial, social, political and other spheres of life in Russia, and reflected on the vocabulary of the Russian language, which, in turn, could not exert any influence on all the world's languages, including English language . It is interesting to note here that many Russian words, such as the Bolshevik advice Leninist Komsomol work day, farm, Stakhanovite, five-year plan , appear in English soon after their appearance in the Russian language. Already in 1929 the use of English dictionaries fixed in the British press word Five - year - plan ' Five-Year Plan ', which appeared in Russian in 1928. In 1936 words stakhanovite, stakhanovism , arising in Russian language only in 1935, widely used British stamp and recorded in the dictionaries. Most of the words in postrevolutionary pores has a vibrant social dimension, even the old word, in its origin is not Russian, international, received a Russian language Soviet era and new sound recorded in dictionaries of other languages as Russianisms-sovietisms. So, two Russian language borrowed words agitation and propaganda , a new reflection enriched, converted into new Russian word-sovietisms droppings and this includes even meeting neologisms.

The modern meaning of the word propaganda (in Russian) - a political term - 'oral and printed activities of the party and class, having the aim to influence the ideology of the masses in a certain direction' is fixed to the beginning of the XX century. The term propaganda - 'distribute any ideas, views, knowledge through ongoing, in-depth and detailed explanation of the masses'. Already by mid-century socio-political term propaganda gets fairly widespread. Great October Socialist Revolution, the ideas of Marxism-Leninism stained these words aloud so that now they are perceived as Russianisms-sovietisms. Words agitation and propaganda got a bright social characteristics identified by the Soviet ideology, domestic use of these words in the Russian language.

The word expresses thinking on race, in word and our feelings, it is also a reflection of and national history and the present day, with all its diversity, with all its variety. That's why every word borrowed another language requires attention, and then it can tell a lot. Word - authorized representative of his country, its history and the present day.

As we already know, there is a household word, as if associated with a particular "national home", the inner life of the people. samovar, tea, brew soup - these words are often needed when talking about Russian way of life. Cognitive meaning of such words, countries vedcheskoe. Such words are like strokes, scenic swabs from genre-home pictures of Russian life. But there is wide public word vennogo range. Their sound is not limited to the scope Vaeth native language. Such words are associated with the genus tion element, but referred to the concepts they endure for the scope of this disaster. It is no longer touches domestic description of, and words related to the public with the knowledge - and the national and universal.

The emergence of the world's first socialist state - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the development of socialist production, culture and morality - all these factors have led to the emergence of a number of new words and expressions have been widely used not only in our country but also abroad.

Ideological influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution generates a stream of words, subsequently named Sovietisms denoting ideas, concepts, institutions associated with the revolution and socialist construction; these words are carriers of ideological content, which can not be fully expressed by other means. They come in other languages is not about one Russianisms as having been born in the Russian language. But , Russism term - it is only the national meta. The second name - Sovietism - meta social, ideological. Thus, in the words highlighted and emphasized their social significance: sovietist 'member of the organization, a supporter of the Land of Soviets'; sovietism 'Soviet power', 'management system through the councils', sovietise - sovietisation 'do the Soviets, sovietize'; sovietic 'Soviet'; Sovietdom 'Tips', 'Soviet power'. Penetrated immediately after the transfer of power to the Soviets of the Russian word ' advice 'in the British and American press at first tried to translate the English word council, which is the equivalent of the word advice within the meaning of the administrative, public body, such as the Council of Ministers - Council of ministers, and in the sense of the meeting - the military council - Army Council. However, the word council to send a new, political values, which acquired the word ' advice ', starting designate a public authority, not caught, because could not express all that range of new concepts that have been made in the Russian word ' Council '. Word Soviet (Councils) was recorded English dictionary in 1917, in subsequent years 1918-1919 it was frequent enough in English and American periodicals, fiction. This word does not require explanation, did not stand out quotes, and was used as a well-known. During the same years 1920-1931 as evidenced by English dictionaries were created based on the Russian word advice - advice to a number of English word-formations: the Soviet 'Soviet Republic', 'The Soviet Union', 'Soviet power', now often phrases Soviet Russia, Soviet Union - Union - Soviet Government - Soviet - Soviets 'revolutionary authorities', 'The Soviet Union', 'management system'. As we see, in word-formation on foreign soil affects alien ideology, giving alien connotations derived words ( sovietisation 'with ovetizirovanie').

Rebirth of the new socialist state and chat with him led Sovietisms flow in languages of different countries. Entered the English words associated with the state system: Soviet ' advice ', bolshevik ' Bolshevik ' , bolshevism ' Bolshevism ', Leninism ' Leninism ' , commissar ' Commissioner ', Komsomol ' Komsomol ' , later became the second value Komsomolets. New forms of socialist Agriculture got reflected in the words of kolkhoz ' farm ' , Sovkhoz ' farm '. Development of science in such words as synchrotron ( synchrophasotron ) and many others.

Word Bolshevik Russian language for our pores already historicism. It means' followers and supporters of Bolshevism , a communist. " As is known, the name ' Bolshevik 'originated in 1903 at the II Congress of the RSDLP, when supporters VI Lenin received the majority of votes in the elections to the central institutions of the Party. Therefore, Lenin and his followers became known as the Bolsheviks and their opponents received minority vote - the Mensheviks. So within the RSDLP at the II Congress in 1903 formed two factions - the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Both terms have been borrowed different languages to describe these two political factions. But first, in the foreign press have tried to reinvent the word Bolshevik using tracing paper majoritarian and maximalist. Both of these words to convey concepts prisoner in our word Bolshevik , not entrenched, and the word bolshevik became public and understood by all. English dictionaries fixed word Bolshevik since 1917: Bolshevik 'member of the Revolutionary most RSDLP', 'member of the Russian Communist Party', 'member of the Communist Party of any country', 'a supporter of the party of the Bolsheviks , Marxist-Leninist, a nonpartisan Bolshevik '. Dictionaries have also noted a Russian Bolshevik 'Russian Bolshevik '. Since that 1917 hit the vocabulary pages and derived words, already arisen on English soil - adjectives Bolshevist ' Bolshevik 'and the second adjective with the same meaning, but no less widespread bolshevistic . In 1919-1920 marked dictionaries practically existed before bolshevise and bolshevisation 'bring to Bolshevism , make him a supporter. "

We note some of Sovietisms, paced in the first years of its existence in other languages. Word clean- headed chain neologisms witness ing the presence of an entirely different assessment and understanding of labor. In the 20s formed in Russian language and transcended the various combinations, for example, labor discipline ( Labour discipline ). The country has entered a new economic policy ka ( New Economic policy ) (1921). Place in the country but vye social processes - collectivization ( collectivise, collectivisation ) (1928), which caused additional to the current names of the new realities: the farm ( Collective and State farm, kolkhoz ) (1933), State Farm ( Sovkhoz, State farm ) (1936) , the MTS ( Machine - tractor station, tractor station ) , workdays ( Labour days ) , team leader ( Leader ) .

In press about the Soviet Union and abroad reflected the process of industrialization ( Industrialisation ) (from late 1926). Cultural Revolution gives a general elimination of illiteracy as a result of compulsory primary tion, and then secondary education, and also occurs Tse ly number of new concepts and realities: the elimination of illiteracy completely ( liquidation of illiteracy, eradication of Illiteracy ), the Workers' Faculty ( worker 's Faculty ) , Rabkor, working reporter ( worker Correspondent ), wall newspaper, wall newspaper ( wall newspaper ).

There are new children's and youth communist profit organizations: children's communist organization tion of VI Lenin (1921) - the young pioneer . Already in 1929, the organization was established in 25 countries. Word pioneer a new conceptualized in these and other countries of the world: from pioneer 'scout, engineer, soldier, INTS promising way for the army ',' man, but paving new ways in any field 'to pioneer 'communitarians Statistical children's organization '. Under the influence of Russian reality and through the Russian language is the new meaning of the word pioneer penetrates into English, thus increasing the value and scope of this long-standing use of the English word. In 1918 on the initiative of VI Lenin Communist Union created Molo bowl - Komsomol. By 1928 such organizations arose whether in 43 countries. The name of the trace was at times ITATION languages: Young Communist League. Word cadres , the formerly in English meaning 'military personnel', now under the influence of the Russian language, acquired the meaning ' frames ',' leading workers in certain sectors of the economy ' .

The English word red (red), the basic meaning of which - a sign of color, influenced by tracing Russian expressions - Red Corner ( red corner ), Red Guard ( Red Guards ), the Red Army ( Red Army ) - in these formations sign loses color. Under the influence of the Russian language adjective red substantiviruetsya and used as a synonym words bolshevik - Communist and revolutionary.

Expands compatibility regular words, which reflects a new life with new needs, requirements ments of, views. For example, the range of combinations with the word socialism is sharply increasing. If on the first half of the XIX century was recorded one combination ' socialist formalism - utopian socialism ' , then after 1917 led to a new life such combinations: the construction of socialism ism ( construction of Socialism ) , the building of socialism ( Building of Socialism ) , to build socialism ( to build Socialism ) , the builders of socialism ( builders of Socialism ) , to ensure the victory of socialism ( to Ensure the victory of Socialism ) , the birthplace of socialism ( Homeland of Socialism ) , economic cal foundations of socialism ( Economic Foundations of Socialism ) , the struggle for socialism ( Struggle for Socialism ), etc. New terminology arise from a combination of figurative meanings, like definition of the word: an invincible fortress of socialism ( Indestructible Fortress of Socialism ) , Cultural Front ( Front Cultural ).

The development of socialist agriculture and Russian agricultural science was the basis for the emergence of English words in vernalization (jarovisation) , spring wheat (spring wheat) and the formation of a verb forms already in the system ang liyskogo language to jarovise (jarovising) 'jarovize'. Also, there are words podzol ' podzolic soil ', which was formed from the adjective podzolic' podzolic '; winter wheat ( winter wheat ) , agrobiology, agricultural machinery , etc.

Each era is reflected in language, chooses his words and creates signals, words, symbols, words, milestones, based on which you can recreate a picture of a past life. Such words as though are on the front lines, many of them cross the border of the national language and becomes vyatsya or borrowed words in a foreign language, or by entering into several languages at once transformed into internationalism. Reading those words, guess the EPO xy their time. birth and life in his native language. Rationalisation Proposals ' rationalization proposals ', rationalisers ' innovators '- these words came into the English language in the sky period of peaceful construction. A stormovik ' Forward ', Yak ' yak-plane ', partisan ' partisans 'asset but functioned in English or include in its dictionary in the Great Patriotic War: " Stormoviks Smashed up about 100 enemy »( Stormtroopers killed about 100 enemies) (Sov. War News Weekly, 17.XII. 1942, p. 2); "A. S. Yakovlev WHO Created the Famous Yak fighter series DURING the War "(Alexander Yakovlev, who created the famous series of fighting yaks during the war) (Rus. Techn. Research news, NY, 1947, v. 1, No. 2 ).

Not less bright and typical for our time combination of Camp of peace, Democracy and Socialism ' camp of peace , de democracy and socialism ', in the spirit of Socialism ' in the spirit of with socialism '. But the most striking word, which came in the last few years in all languages of the world, without a doubt, we should mention the word once order . Discharge- but BoE word in the diplomatic dictionary - wrote on April 6 in the journal "World Magazine" The Secretary-General Com munist Party of the United States, Gus Hall. In the Dictionary Webster it is defined as' a reduction of tension or hostility, especially in completely in relations between states. " "Many benefits nicknames Cold War barely digested this idea. For them it is a bitter pill "(" Pravda ", 1974, May 3). An American journalist in its observations about their international relations, wrote: " Detente - a word which has acquired its own meaning in Moscow. " "Moscow origin discharge, which was impact possible due to the persistent implementation of the Peace Programme, adopted by the XXIV Congress of the CPSU, it will always be for us, the Soviet people, especially proud of "(" Komsomolskaya Pravda ", 1975, July 24).

Some of the words that appeared in English in the 20 - 30 years of this century under the influence of the Russian language, disappeared without a trace, as they went out of use in the Russian language. It is words like vydvizhenetz ' nominee ' , bezbozhnik ' atheist ' , besprizornik ' homeless ' , depersonalization ' personal responsibility ', limitationist ' predelschik ' , lishenetz ' lishenets '.

Russian borrowing played a major role in improving the modern philosophical and political terms in all languages, including English. In addition to direct borrowing from Russian in English, a change compatibility number of words under the influence of the Russian language. So new Russian phraseological combinations, such as the hero of labor, socialist construction, unbreakable moral and political unity, the vital interests of the people, the development of virgin and fallow lands, given in English, such as new combinations of hero of Labour, Socialist construction, indestructable Moral - Political unity, vital interests of the people, Reclamation of virgin and unused Lands. emergence after World War II and the People's Democracies worldwide movement fighting for peace led to the emergence in the English language such as frazeologizmov Countries of New Democracy or just New Democracies, Peoples of good Will, Struggle for peace, democracy and Socialism, peace Champion.

Initially, Russian and borrowing copies from Russian words and expressions used in English only in the description of Soviet reality. However, some words have long been consumed and no direct relationship to our country. For example, the word stakhanovite naturally connected with Soviet reality indicates savershenno new attitude to work, typical of the socialist state. However, over time it is, like many other words, English only begins to be used in language and in a broader sense: «He is a Real Stakhanovite of the time "(" Times ", 1941). Judging by this article, the word stakhanovite not connected with work in production, and the work of a politician who very successfully fulfilling its responsibilities.

Semantic sphere of which the vast majority of British Sovietisms, is a complex socio-political concepts that arise during the construction of the world's first socialist state. Significant part Sovietisms reflects certain features of the state system of the USSR, the socialist economic system, socialist culture. They reflect a new attitude, unthinkable in a capitalist society, for example: Socialist emulation ' socialist competition ', shock - worker ' drummer '. Sharp class struggle that accompanied the building of socialism in our country, made its mark on British sovietisms example: wrecker ' pest ', purge ' cleaning ', kulak ' fist ' .

Sovietisms form . borrowing Russian post-October period in the English language are found in the following forms:

1) Borrowing Russian material form, so-called "self-borrowing." This full or phonetic borrowing, that is, those who have entered the English language in its native form of sound, of course, in a known manner modified in accordance with the English phonological system, for example: bolshevik, Soviet, Komsomol, Udarnik or with some changes in the affixes - yarovisation . Overwhelmingly these words retained unchanged inherent semantics. Phonetic borrowing of English Sovietisms relatively little. Some of them have become part of the English language and have a wide and constant use; others have now become less common. Group total loans expanded slowly.

2) Kalki, ie the creation of new words and collocations by literal translation of Russian words and phraseological units. When tracing is saved and the value and structural similarities to the original. And though not borrowed the words themselves, but borrowed concepts expressed by them. This group Sovietisms growing all along, taking a more and more new words reflecting more and more new concepts, such as: depersonalization ' personal responsibility ', Self - - Day ' workday ', dekulakisation ' cannibalization ', and sustainable denominative phrases like Five - year - plan ' Five Year Plan ', social work ' social work ' , house of Culture ' House of Culture ', Socialist emulation ' socialist competition ', Producers' Cooperative ' co-operatives ', Consumers' Cooperative ' consumer cooperatives ', Political guide ' political officer ', Red Army ' Red Army ', Machine - tractor - station ' machine-tractor Station ', Collective Agreement ' collective agreement ', People 's Court of Justice ' People's Court ', social property ' socialist centralism ', peace shift ' Watch the world ', Hero of Labour ' hero of labor ', Exhibition of Economic Achievements ' Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy ', People 's Artist ' People's Artist ', Honoured Artist ' Honored Artist ', Honoured Scientist ' Honored Scientist ', Honoured Art Worker ' Honoured art ', Park of Culture and Rest ' recreation park ', Wedding Palace ' Wedding Palace '. Sometimes under the influence of Russian expressions exactly kalkiruetsya phrase that matches already in the English equivalent. So, along with conventional combinations Socialist order , Socialist Regime meets and accurate tracing from the Russian ' socialist system '- Socialist structure . Sometimes the desire for accurate reproduction of the structure leads to Russian phrases semantic fuzziness. For example, the expression ' industrial training 'is passed as Productive learning . This tracing clearly fails due ambiguities English adjective productive, which means not only the 'production', but also 'productive', 'productive', 'effective', 'productive'. Therefore, some authors resort to the transfer of this concept by the phrase Technological learning .

3) The use of English words in their new values that are relevant Russian words: shock Brigade , the formerly in the English meaning of 'emergency team' now means' shock brigade '.

4) Application of the latter transmission method Russian vyrazhenich is substantially no calking, but rather clarifying the translation. This is the fourth form of Russian borrowings postrevolutionary era. The notion of ' individual farmer 'token passed Individual Peasant , ' poor '- Poor Peasant , ' middle peasants '- Middle Peasant , ' farm '- collectiva farm , ' farmer '- Collective farmer , ' progressive wage system '(progressivka) - Progressive piece - rate system . These cases are not the result of tracing, as in them there peresskaz values and not play back the most etymological structure Russian tokens.

There are also so-called "hybrid" loans, ie, derived from Russian and English words: Soviet Union, Soviet power, stakhanovite movement , etc.

Often, the same Russian word exists in the English language in two forms - in Russian and material form as vellum: Komsomol - Young Communist League, piatiletka - Five - year - plan, Sovkhoz - State farm. Many Russian borrowings entered the vocabulary of English language is so strong that they gave and give a number of new formations: collectivize, collectivization, sovietic, sovietism, sovietize, Y. C. L - er ' Komsomolets ' (Y. C. L. - Young Communist League), pioneer Leadership etc.

Sometimes the search for the English equivalent for the Russian term, an attempt to use an explanatory translation to convey concepts specific to the Soviet socialist social and state system is reduced to the substitution of the word not only Russian, but also the very notion expressed by them. This happens, for example, in cases where permitted to replace Russian political terms such English terms, which essentially reflect a fundamentally different social system. For example, 'Prime Minister' often turns into Premier, 'Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet' - in President of the S o viet Union, 'advice' - in the council. Needless to say, that all these cases can not be regarded as a borrowing from the Russian language. Attraction to many English writers explains Translation explained, apparently, the desire for maximum clarity of presentation.

Phonetic or full borrowing, entered the English language in its native form soundproofing known manner modified in accordance with the English phonetic system, in most cases remain unchanged inherent semantics. Number of Russian origin phonetic borrowing is relatively small. Separate ways listed above are closely related to each other and their tude quite discern. This kind, as well as insufficient development of this issue explains the presence protivorichivaya statements in the works of various linguists. Thus, VV Akulenko blueprints cases relates to the translation of words relevant Russian English words used in the new value, for example, cell ' cell ', patronage ' patronage ', whereas the NN Amoz includes them in the phonetic borrowing. NN Raevskaya believes phrase Young Communist League tracing paper, and NN Amoz - explanatory translation.

If during the first three periods of Russianisms prevailed directly borrowed words, although there were separate tracing paper (eg, Slavophils ' Slavophiles 'and Westeners ' Westerners '), in the fourth period tracings appear in large numbers. In the Soviet era, tracing is becoming the leading method of borrowing Russian words and phrases in English, for example, Soviet power, local Soviet, Council of People 's Commissars, New Economic Policy, Hero of Socialist Labour, Land of Soviets .

A significant amount of cripples ( Party - Nucleus ' core of the party ') is based on rethinking certain English words, their acquisition of new values associated with Soviet reality. This once again confirms the fact that it is not always possible to establish a clear distinction between different modes of communication Sovietisms in English.

VV Akulenko distinguishes several types of trace borrowings: polukalek to complex words and terms like composite Soviet farm ' farm '; polukalek to affriksalnym entities with replacement affriksa or root: michurinist ' Michurinist ', stormovik ' attack '. In the latter case, it was more a question not of tracing and complete assimilation of lexical borrowing, expressed in likening borrowed root primordial and replacing foreign language derivational affixes elements specific to the language.

Education abbreviations many Russian borrowing (for example, C. P. S. U. Communist Party of the Soviet Union, MTS Machine and Tractor Station ) shows a broad understanding and use of these words.

NN Amoz indicates cases displacement phonetic borrowing more conventional words, calques ( Komsomol - Young, Communist League ), as well as instability, loose form separate Sovietisms (cf. maternity Centre - consultative Centre, Sovkhoz - Soviet farm ).

Part Sovietisms reflects concepts characterizing certain, the last stage in the development of Soviet society, and is not used in relation to modern reality as in Russian and in English, for example: NEP, rabfac, Council of People 's, Commissars, Red Army.

In his Ph.D. dissertation G. Yu score "Russian influence postrevolutionary era on the vocabulary of the English language" among other issues highlighted the problem of lexical assimilation of borrowed words, manifested in their semantic peculiarities of development and growth of their formative productivity. International word partisan , mean in English 'supporter', 'follower of any party', after the War of 1812 took on a new meaning in this new value passed into the English language. Of the Soviet period of Russian borrowed only those words and only those values that are associated with new and important part of people's concepts, do not have their designation in the language, such as: Soviet meaning 'authority prolitariata and rural poor' has gained importance ' body workers' power in the USSR '.

Most Russian words, getting in English semantics remain unchanged, however, the individual borrowing to acquire new, more value, ie exposed known rethinking. So, the word Soviet in the plural form for the name is sometimes served the Soviet state, and sometimes uotreblyalos meaning 'Soviet power', for example: Under the Soviets ' under the Soviet regime . " Word bolshevik besides its direct meaning ' member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 'is also used in the sense of' man of extreme revolutionary views '. Word komsomol sometimes used with the meaning ' Komsomolets '.

GY Bally binds Sovietisms acquisition of new meanings in English with the process of assimilation, which in itself is correct, but we should not forget that when the possibility of deliberate distortion of the semantics of certain words. Russian loanwords from creating new derivatives, according to available in English word-formation models: Five - year planning, Collective Farming, colectivisation, sovietic, sovietism, pioneer Leadership.

RZ Ginzburg distinguishes borrowing, decorated according to the norms of the English word formation, including the words of Russian origin: to jarovise - jarovisation type widespread in English (cf. to nationalise - Nationalisation, to dramatise - dramatisation).

Russian borrowing is also converted the adjective Soviet , formed from the corresponding noun and adjective kolkhoz in slovasochetanii kolkhoze member. In all cases the same kind of conversion: formation of an adjective from a noun.

International words. Often there is an important new concept denoting a word borrowed not in any one language, and in many languages. Thus, an international fund lexicon, which includes an international language different areas of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, and many abstract words.

International, or international words borrowed from the same source, have graphics and sound similarities, coinciding to some extent in the sense, as would constitute the common heritage of a number of languages. Most of them are the result of the parallel enrichment of modern languages at the expense of the ancient vocabulary, ie, Latin and Greek. Another part of them comes from the modern languages, such as Russian: Soviet, Sputnik, Perestroika. By international words are not related compliance, ie words, the presence of which in a number of languages is a consequence of the relationship of these languages and their origin from one language - the basics:

 

Russian	English	German
мать нос гусь	mother nose goose	Mutter Nase Hans

 

A large number of different broad Sovietisms predominantly in English and other Western languages. Many of them turned into internatsionalinye words in their immediate Russian form or by tracing them:

 

Russian	English	French	German
лененизм большевик комсомол колхоз социалистическое соревнование	Leninism bolshevik Komsomol kolkhoz socialist emulation	leninisme bolshevik Komsomol kolkhoz emulation socialiste	Leninismus Bolschewik Komsomol Kolchos sozialistischer Wettbewerb

 

As pointed out by VI Lenin: "Our Russian word" Soviet "- one of the most common, it is not even translated into other languages, and pronounce all in Russian."

Soviet satellite to orbit the language . history word sputnik very revealing example of how extra-linguistic ties in the history of language. While in the Soviet Union and the United States only the preparations for the launch of artificial satellites in the English literature are mainly used terms: Artificial Satellite, man - Made moon. On the day when the news about the launch of the first artificial satellite of the Soviet Union, and there was immediately become a common word baby - moon with a strong positive emotional tone. However, the popularity of this event and the admiration of a grand achievement of Russian science has led to the fact that the Russian word sputnik quickly entered all languages of the world, displacing competing with them interchangeably.

On the day when the Soviet satellite went into space, radio and newspapers around the world reported the event, keeping the Russian name of this unprecedented even spacecraft. Birthday new value from the old word satellite - 'first artificial Soviet satellite - an artificial satellite' - can be dated October 4, 1957. On this day, the eve of the 40th anniversary of the October Socialist Revolution, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, thereby ushering in a new, space age in the history of mankind.

From that day the word satellite in the sense of 'artificial satellite' becoming an international and in various transcriptions (ie writing by the rules of spelling and a pronunciation of foreign languages) is in different languages of the world, as evidenced by dictionaries - English, American, French, and others published in the late 50s - early 60s.

In Russian, the word is multi-valued, it has a wide range of uses, combinations that caused surprise in the foreign press: Russian word for a Satellite is " Sputnik ". It also means ... fellow-traveller («Daily Herald», 1957, 8 Okt.). In languages have borrowed words from the satellite , it is limited to a single value of 'Soviet artificial satellite', 'first artificial satellite.' Using borrowed Russian words differ concepts: American artificial satellite - is Satellite , and the Soviet artificial satellite - it Sputnik (satellite). The news of the spacecraft and the priority of the Soviet Union, both directly and indirectly reflected in the Russian language. This is a very interesting way of language exposure influenced by events not language - science and technology.

The first use of the word sputnik new reality here as it was noted October 12, 1957 in the British newspaper "Daily Worker ". Between the first and second runs Soviet satellites word itself felt as unusual, excelled in print (italics quotation marks), was perceived as a proper name: As the Soviet Sputnik orbited around the Earth tailed by its own Sub - Satellite ... there Were These other Developments ("Daily Worker ", New York, Oct. 9, 1957). At first use of the word Sputnik is an occasional character. However, this situation does not last long. Word Sputnik is increasingly used when talking about a Soviet satellite. Even after the launch of the second Soviet satellite November 3, 1957 the name Sputnik ' satellite 'is becoming common, it is gaining prominence. Fluctuations in the use of the word satellite - Sputnik on his own behalf to the common noun ended in favor of the common noun usage. Russian word sputnik obeys the grammatical system of the English language: The Sputnik 's Radio Voice ("Daily Worker ", New York, October 10, 1957). Word is concise, stress the word sputnik on the first syllable. This coincides with the location of stress in English words and facilitates the entry of Russian words into English. In fact, in the beginning there is a combination word | sp |, at the end of the word - a consonant | k |, which is typical of words of English speech. Reading vowels also complies with current regulations. In the article "Russian 's Second Satellite "the launch of the second artificial satellite in the journal «Flight» (Nov. 8, 1957), the word Sputnik occurs repeatedly: This Second Sputnik carried equipment weighing no less than Half a ton ... ACCORDING to the Observation Data Sputnik WAS Given an orbital Speed of About 8,000 Metres per Second. ACCORDING to Calculations Which are Being Made by more Exact Direct observations, the Maximum Distance of the Sputnik from the Earth's surface is over 1,500 km (About 935 miles). Originally the word Sputnik is often used with an application that reveals the content of the borrowed word: A sign in the window informed Them They Were Hearing Sputnik , the Russian moon ("Daily Worker", New York, Oct. 9, 1957); Even more exciting than to Them Apparently the beep-beep of the Sputnik , the Russian-Launched moon, is the sound of Mr. and Mrs. American Citizen calling in from all over the country wanting information («Daily Worker», New York, Oct. 10, 1957); The Artificial moon Sputnik ("Daily Worker", London, Nov. 11, 1957). Soon, however, such "support" becomes redundant. Word of Sputnik in force acquired their fame clearly speaks for itself. interesting fact is that the Russian word sputnik in English explained by comparing with the Moon. If the Russian language artificial satellite is defined as a satellite of the Earth , the new way of English texts often built in comparison with the Moon: Rissian - Launched moon ("Daily Worker ", London, 1957, 11 Nov.).

Usually it takes time to become someone's word was fixed dictionaries. But the word satellite was included in dictionaries almost simultaneously with the satellite -machine into orbit. "There is nothing surprising that linguists have acted on such a hurry: satellites changed the behavior and scientists and statesmen "- so the newspaper" New York Herald Tribune, "December 21, 1957. It was pointed out socio-ideological meaning of the word Sputnik. It reflected the revolutionary phenomenon not only in science and technology. Exit Soviet satellite into space simultaneously announced on scientific and technical potential of the Soviet Union. It is the Russian word Sputnik becomes the symbol of a new era in science and in society.

In the process of fixing the word Sputnik in English a number of changes occurred in the understanding of native speakers of the grammatical nature of the word. Thus, the observed fluctuations in the sense of the word as a common noun or as a proper name. If in the above extracts from the journal «Flight» word clearly used as a common noun (the Sputnik ), then, for example, in referring to the same time the magazine «Life» (Nov. 11, 1957) Sputnik has a value of a proper name: the growing familiarity with Sputnik did nothing to Soothe American 's shock at the original Announcement of the Soviet Breakthrough into space. Such fluctuations can be observed not only in various publications, but even in the same edition. For example, in the American newspaper «Daily Worker» on October 8, 1957 we find: He May Find A Judge to issue an injunction Ordering Sputnik to go back Home. It is Possible That Sputnik Will Recognize the injunction. It is also possible that it will merely reply Beep-Beep-Beep and continue on its merry way. Here Sputnik - a proper name. In the same newspaper on October 10 the same year, in the phrase "... The Sputnik Continued to Speed around the Earth "is used as a common noun is a noun. Due to the launch of the next satellite is very commonly used steel designations Sputnik I, Sputnik II, Sputnik III. Side by side with by that word widely isrolzuetsya as usual name common noun: It is not Suggested That this feat of Engineering Proves That ITS sponsors have Decided to beat swords into All Their Ploughshares, but every Sputnik Which uses rockets, launchers and Personnel is one such transfomation. Besides, just as the conquest of Everest WAS Shared by All Those Which teams tried before, so Also are sputniks A World Achievement ("Aeronautics", 1958, № 5). In a relatively short period Sputnik acquires grammatical features of English noun: a singular and plural possessive is used in, for example: The Sputnik 's Radio voice ("Daily Worker ", New York, Oct. 10, 1957), has all the syntactic function noun. Word used not only with certain, but in individual cases and with uncertain ARTICLE: Tikhov Said he soon Hoped That A Sputnik Which Would be designed "Would revolve around the Moon to photograph the Which Side cannot be Seen from the Earth" ("Daily Herald", Oct. 5, 1957). Currently not often see Sputnik , dedicated kurivom. Completely disappeared cases writing the words in quotations. Moreover, the usual spelling of the word was with a lowercase letter.

It is interesting to follow how did you select the name, what new - even temporarily existed - in language education spawned a new phenomenon. Here are the main symbols of the satellite , which were used in the pages of British and American newspapers in the first half of October: satellite (often with the definitions, for example: the Russian Satellite, Russia 's Earth Satellite and seemingly opposite - Russia 's space Satellite), the moon (often in combination, for example: the baby moon, the Russian ( Soviet ) (Satellite) moon, the man - Made moon, the Red Moon, Russia 's moon), the Bleep, (the) Sputnik . As you can see, the names of various. However, some bear the imprint of the speaker's attitude to the satellite as a messenger of the Soviet Union. If the word Satellite, Sputnik neutral in this regard, then it can not be said, for example, of such designation as the Red Moon. This name - a product of the "cold war." Conversely, the baby moon, the Bleep sound almost affectionately. The basis of the word imitation is Bleep satellite signals. This word is widely used to refer to the first Soviet satellite: I saw the Bleep ... Yesterday ("Daily Herald", Oct. 12, 1957); A special newsreal on the Bleep reached Moscow cinemas yesterday («Daily Worker», London, Oct. 16, 1957). And even in generalized value: Not a Bleep by Britain («Daily Herald», Oct. 30, 1957). Bleep was one of those sensational titles, the use of which is characteristic of the foreign press. Like most such entities, it was doomed to early obsolescence. Probably cessation words Bleep facilitated by the fact that a sign of underlying names, but um c in the word of a temporary nature, does not represent a constant feature of the subject.

Very clearly reflect a subjective attitude of the people to a new subject here, one of the suggestions from readers of English newspapers - "Daily Herald "announced in this newspaper competition for the best name of the satellite. Four days after the announcement of the competition, 11 October 1957, ie just a week after the launch of the satellite , the newspaper announced the results of the competition, while publishing more than twenty names drawn from Received proposals for the names of the satellite . These names are clearly manifested feelings caused by the Soviet satellite people in the West. In some proposed названий подчеркивается достигнутое Советским Союзом первенство in launch artificial satellites : Highball - It is That literally, and it Certainly Carries A hefty kick for the Scientists of the Western World (A sec received first Prize.); Saturnike - from Sat-on-ike, Because they've Got one over on the Americans. In some names reflected rating incident events as outstanding scientific and technical Achievements: Kangaroo - It has Made the Biggest Jump in Rocket Science; Elvis - It's TOP of the hit parade. Existing in consciousness people link concepts of "USSR" and " satellite "expressed by using for it itself form words, one of readers, making the words o Russell - Combine Part I of Russia with Part of Satellite, and it Makes A lovely tongue-Twister: Russian Round Russell rushes. As mentioned, most of the other names permeated optimism, faith in the future of light:

New Dawn - In the hope That it marks the Beginning of an ERA in Which the conquest of space Will replace an AIM as the conquest of man.

Herald - Let us Assume That it is the Herald of peace Encircling the World.

Hope - Trusting That Will Scientists now forget All About War.

Saviour - Because it Will end All War Ambitions and Give mankind eternal peace.

Cupid - Will I have Faith in Humanity and hope That it Will Capture All our hearts.

Comrade Whiz - I hope it's A Comrade and it WAS Certainly Launched with A Whiz.

These are in their content witty abbreviations:

Sam - Because it Sails Around Merrily, Madly Shocks America and is the Soviet's Amazing Miracle.

Susie - Soviet Unmanned Satellite in Exploration and Soviet Union's Success in Electronics.

Mitsi - Makes Interplanetary Travel Soon Inevitable.

Sadly stand out against these complete optimism somewhat pessimistic names names:

Alarmist - It has Been Launched to put the Free Countries in constant fear.

Harbinger of hell - Maybe the Russian moon Will Lead to Discoveries That man Will never wish he'd known.

Heaven's USURPER - If God wanted to enter into Men the sky and eavesdrop on What is going on in the abode of the Blessed, he Would have Provided Them with wings.

Although none of these designations are not "caught on", they can certainly be of interest in the study of the phenomena of the subject here, as well as indicators of the reaction in the West to launch the Soviet Union 's first artificial satellite of the Earth.

The role of Russian words borrowed satellite is not limited to naming a new subject. Layer of the satellite can act in another role - as characteristics or evaluation. Satellite - this is the first study artificially satellite, launched the world's first in outer bridges USSR symbol great scientific and technical to achieving. The word companion is now surrounded by a "cosmic" Oreo scrap due to the outstanding achievements of science and technology. The combination of the first Soviet satellite and outlines a new appraisal and qualitative use of the word meaning 'the action chosen for the first time, a phenomenon like for launching the world's first Soviet satellite. Here are some examples of such use. American scientist J. Bar-Hillel, estimating in 1962 ("The Times Literary Supplement ") experience possible from machine translation (albeit imperfect strength) for the general public, said that his recovery may take "as the launch of another satellite" (" ... as another Sputnik ") . Russian word Sputnik here marks the first time committed something of paramount importance for all mankind. Another similar case. Renowned Italian scientist Professor Dalotti sky from the podium of one of USC called surgical instruments for suturing blood vessels and tissues created in the USSR Council cal " satellites in surgery. " Slopes of these Soviet " satellites "was constructed over the world (" Companions in hirur energy. "-" Spark ", 1963, № 28, p. 9). And again the word of Russian Sputnik helped to not only emotional, but also is a correct assessment of the world's first established as accurate as surgical instruments.

If we talk about the lexical "ingrown" words, we can note some cases the use of the word in a figurative sense, which is only possible with the word, the meaning of which is well known: Arthur Clarke, Founder of the British Interplanetary Society, is off to America to fire a verbal Sputnik at the Politicians there ("Daily Herald ", Nov. 8, 1957). That the word Sputnik firmly established in the English Dictionary, confirmed lexical tumors associated with this borrowing.

English neoplasms with the suffix - Nik . Out of Sputnik stands suffix - Nik , which stands in the Russian language "a person involved in any activity or associated with anything osobennym'i used in English to form new words. Suffix appears as a suffix of nouns. Firstborn can be considered ironic and humorous flopnik , formed from the verb to Flop - plop, plunk. The word was used in the British press to refer to the American artificial satellite, unofficially named Yanknik , in connection with udavshimisya repeatedly failed attempts to start it. Following flopnik appeared kaputnik , goofnik , sputternik . Known words such as peacenik ' peacenik 'and returnik ' returnee '. Also Beatnik - very commonly used choice while the word for 'representative beat generation' (America). Similarly, the word was formed by Pupnik (but already from the existing pup - puppy). Word was used in English Print in period motion second Soviet satellite concludes in yourself dog called Americans Muttnik : Earlier Professor Nesmeyanov, WHO HEADS the Russian Academy of Science, Revealed That the Pupnik is Heavier than Half-ton first Announced ("Daily Herald", Nov. 6, 1957); the Pupnik is exactly on the Broadcasting Frequencies Same as the Sputnik ("Daily Herald", Nov. 4, 1957). The magazine «Time» entitled "Dog Story "left a note:

Dog Man Sights: Headlines yelped Barbaric New Words such as pupnik and poochnik , sputpup and woofnik . Cartoonists Outer space filled with Gloomy GOPniks and gleeful Demo-niks ... Readers mysterious flying objects Reported That the Fort Worth Star-Telegram promptly dubbed whatniks Even Manhattan's ... Usually longfaced Communist Daily Worker in bayed A Headline: every dognik has ITS daynik (Nov. 18 , 1957).

Of other temporary structures, which are based on the word in, humorous note falsely classical Sputnikitis - name of the disease, which was to enthusiasm companion : Sputnikitis is on the Increase ("Daily Herald ", Nov. 8, 1957). Also appeared in print, such as neoplasms protestnik and limpnik (tactics demonstrators limp hands of the police), poetnik: ... Mr Allen Ginsberg and other Beat poets ... I need not stop to illustrate these linguistic features in the work of Ginsberg and other poetniks (Randolph Quirk , The Study of the Mother Tongue, 1961, 20). Another small group of like - Nik -formations refers to popular music and perhaps the result of "youth" part beatnik coupled with an understanding of the word beat in the musical sense: folknik , popnik , rocknik , discothequenik . In these examples - Nik expresses enthusiasm: What is mysterious force that makes fervent boatmen? ... "" Out there, "says one boatnik huskily, "A man's A boy and A boy's A man ..." ("Time", Athlantic end, May 18, 1959); For ten years now, each March has brought from 30,000 to 50,000 greaseniks of the Sports car Persuasion here for the 12-hour orgy of noise and grime called the Sebring International Grand Prix of Endurance («Herald Tribune», New York, March 28, 1960). Words with the suffix - Nik used by American employers for names garments: Beachniks at sea by Jantzen. Surfing pants (Harder, 1966).

This fashion for the formation of new words using the suffix - nik was short-lived and gave birth to a temporary formations. However, - Nik was already familiar to the Americans by the words of Yiddish, came from Russia as nudnik 'dull, stupid person', where - nik gives the word a negative connotation neglect; nogoodnik : Nerts to these Average Guys, Harry, they 're just a set of peanut - circuit nogoodniks (Len Deighton, Horse Under Water, 1965, 77); allrightnik : Only Allrightniks Eat with the Capitain - so you don 't appreciate all that High Society? Well, excuse me, no kikes wanted, hein? (Katherine Anne Porter, Ship of Fools, 1962, 254); holdupnik : "Telephone the Police", Cried Karp. "The car is parked Across the Street." "What car?" "The holdupniks . "(Bernard Malamud, The Assistant, 1967, 26). In all these examples, the people - the Jews.

Interesting use - Nik 's poem "Little Sputnik "Alan Max representing paraphrase the famous poem:

Twinkle, twinkle little Sputnik,

How I wonder where you are atkin!

Up above the world so highnik,

Like a candle in the skynik.

As you travel in the spacenik,

Shall we start a new arms-racenik,

Or match the Spirit of the Sputnik

With a global all-arms cutnik?

 

(«Daily Worker», New York, Oct. 11, 1957).

 

Russian nominal word companion, while serving as a proper name for the first Soviet spacecraft, became a household word in the English language, and as a common noun has again turned to their own names. For example, Sputnik masculine Sputnikja feminine. These names fans of equestrian sport called their favorite horses, etc. Formed the new definitions in the English language, as the pre-Sputnik ERA ' dosputnikovaya era '("America Aviation ", Dec. 2, 1957) and Post - Sputnik Russia ' poslesputnikovaya Russia '("Popular Science ", 1958, № 1).

This is how the new history of the old Russian word sputnik - ' artificial satellite '. New value, as shown by numerous examples, the word stuck and put the satellite into many languages of the world. However, the satellite was only the first space word borrowed from the Russian language. The first Soviet satellite orbit brought to the world even whole groups of Russian words.

In November 1970 the newspaper, radio and television reported soft landing on the moon automatic station "Luna-17", which took the lunar self-propelled vehicle " Lunokhod -1 ". November 22, 1970 and hosted radio telebeseda dedicated to the achievements in space. On Air word sounded rover .

Word rover was vital not only for the Russian language. And although there were different languages and their names for the new spacecraft (for example, in English moon car , etc.), the Russian word rover then as a synonym, then as a kind of proper name entered in many languages: English Moon - car Lunokhod - moonlit carriage - Lunokhod ("Morning Star ", 1970, November 19); The Lunokhod -1 ("The Canadian Tribune ", 1970, November 25).

Again Russian word milestone in outer path of eternal progress omen Soviet science and technology.

As we could already see one word its sound has a certain social information ( satellite ) , but this information races opens the fuller, deeper semantic be disclosed teak words than fully and accurately reflected the connection between the word and the life history of a people.

Russian words penetrate into other languages. They represent our lives, our achievements. Launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, produced in the Soviet Union, as it led to linguistic neologisms orbit space: Satellite, moonwalker ... transplanted to a different environment, they can be painted with different colors of life, is exposed to another language . In a word, even a special, terminological reflected manifold sity of human life, international contacts, but still present, the national identity, which allows loanword call Russism, sovietisms ( satellite, honesty, rover, astronaut, spaceport - Sputnik , Lunik, lunochod - Lunokhod, Cosmonaut, e cosmodrom ) . Noteworthy that Russian borrowings expressing concepts related to consumer side of Soviet life, in English, after the October Revolution in fact. In describing the Soviet everyday life English writers and publicists bypass their language, using existing or equivalent lexical equivalents, or descriptive techniques. In rare cases - seems to give a kind of national color when describing any household items - used the original Russian name of these parts in the Roman alphabet, printed in italics in quotation marks, often with accompanying explanations, for example, social tasks, Called nagruzka ( load); pamyatka - A list of instructions. Generally, it is characteristic that such "italic" words are used most often when describing pre-revolutionary Russia. For example, the winner of the International Stalin Peace Prize Hewlett Johnson, describing the scarcity of life of the poor peasants in Tsarist Russia, said that the poor are forced to feed their children only with the Inevitable kasha , ie 'Inevitable porridge'. Also: povivalnaya Babka - Midwife, paranja - woman's Veil.

Words, leaving his native language, as if the casts are imprinting the life they had witnessed. Troika, samovar, sable king, then Decembrist, nihilist, the district council - these individual words spoken about the country - rich trading partner, the growing political cal consciousness of the people and the difficulties of this growth. But still prevailed Russianisms-ekzotizmy: soup, borscht, kvass, Sapo gi, his cap. And flow Sovietisms: Tips, Soviet, Bolshevik work day, voluntary Sunday, five-year plan, the hero of labor, the right to rest - changes color borrowing Russian words.

Loanword - it's not just a bar of life nor the people of the country, but also the key to understanding this life in a certain time period. At one time, VI Lenin stressed that the Russian word Tips to understand all the generations of the world, and in our days are symbolic soulful strings Alexander Twardowski:

 

Sound in all the edges of the planet

Without translation, as Moscow,

Bolsheviks in October, Tips

World, satellite - Russian word.

 

FIFTH PERIOD. Russian words that reflect the restructuring of the Soviet Union, in English . Revolutionary nature of the changes taking place in the life of Soviet society, reflected in the large number of Russian words. The exceptional importance of the concepts designated by these words, determines their internationalization.

Russian first time new borrowing is the word publicity . It is used in English since 1986, registered in the dictionary of neologisms of the same year, which is interpreted as follows orazom: "the willingness of the Soviet Government to be more Open about its affairs "(Longman Guardian New Words Ed. by S. Mort. - Bristol. - 1986. R. 4.). Many Western newspapers and magazines also began to write about the publicity as a "willingness to be more open," explaining or replacing the word glasnost English word openness («openness"): Glasnost , Mr. Gorbachev 's policy of openness, caused an even bigger Buzz ("Economist", 1987); This year, the Russians are working on openness ("New York Times ", 1987). There are other synonyms for the word glasnost: ... Under the Protection of the Campaign for glasnost , or Frankness ("Economist", 1988); His Strategy: openness, candor, publicity - All Summed up in the Russian word glasnost ("Newsweek", 1987).

Some Western journalists tried to interpret the publicity within capitalist values. In connection with this interesting example cited in the newspaper Ameri p ikanskih Communists: ACCORDING to the British Correspondent in Moscow the success of glasnost depends on making Rock music, blue jeans and avan-garde art freely available to Soviet Citizens ("People's Daily World" , 1987).

The idea that the notion of transparency is different from concepts correlated with bourgeois democracy, is present in the magazine publication of the Communist Party USA: Glasnost differs from the expansion of Bourgeois Democracy ("Political Affairs ", 1988). Westerners, especially those who have visited the Soviet Union in the last years of its existence, aware that the concept of openness is not confined to the concepts 'openness', 'honesty': David Winn from Dallas, Taxas, Said: I have come here to see glasnost and openness ("People 's World ", 1988).

Furthermore, among the citizens of Western countries view was that in their countries there is no transparency as concepts of social life: In the name of peace we could do with some glasnost from Mrs. Thatcher ("Morning Star ", 1987); "I don 't want the FBI to visit me, "one Said. Another person Pointed out: "We do not have glasnost here "(" People's Daily World ", 1987). These examples show that the word glasnost begins to use the English language and is "Russian" context of developing foreign language inclusions in loanword necessary lexical and semantic sitemy English in connection with his concept bezekvivalentnoy transmitted. Examples of this use of the word glasnost are increasingly common in the Western press: Spain: More glasnost , Please. Cool unconcern is Mr. Felipe Gonzalez 'reaction to the muttering audible in his socialist party («Economist», 1987); Edinburgh Film Festival - Edinburgh glasnost ("New Statesman", 1987).

The assimilation of the word glasnost in English evidenced by his participation in the processes of word-formation: ... Thoughts Expressed That Would have Been unprintable in pre-glasnost times ("Economist", 1987). Since under the influence of the press word glasnost associated in English speakers with the word openness, as well as in connection with the phonetic proximity English suffix - ness and part of the Russian word ("- completely "- nost ), this part is perceived in the English language as the derivation , as evidenced, for example, the creation of the word closenost by analogy with the word glasnost and openness under the influence of the word: Glasnost Versus closenost ("Political Affairs ", 1987).

Gradually the word glasnost began to be used in the English language in a generalized, symbolic sense, ie denote our country as a whole, the Soviet people. Thus, held in October 1988 in the English city of Birmingham Festival of Folk Art in the Soviet brochures and newspapers described as "the arrival of glasnost ": Glasnost comes to Birmingham ("Morning Star ", 1988).

Since 1987, English has become the word of the restructuring , and it is often interpreted as 'economic reconstruction, economic reconstruction' and passed the word or phrase restructuring Economic Reform.

Restructuring as capitalist propaganda and publicity considered within their realities, assuming, for example, that the restructuring should entail unemployment: So Long as Unemployment cannot be Accepted Openly, it Will be hard to believe that perestroika in the Sovi e t Union Will be ("Economist", 1987). At the same time the press, explaining the word Perestroika , emphasizes that restructuring is not limited to conversion of the economy and is a revolutionary reconstitution of society: Perestroika - the new Soviet revolution ("Canadian Tribune ", 1988); Perestroika involves much more than Economic restructuring of the Soviet Union. It involves renovations in the Political, social and Cultural Life ("People's Daily World", 1988).

It should be notice that on West concept of restructuring was used by respect to some events of his social life: Right-wing Labour Leader Bryan Gould WAS Accused of ditching the Party's Commitment to Public ownership After A Controversial speech on Labour's " Perestroika " ("Morning Star", 1988). Therefore, we can conclude that the word Perestroika , as well as the word glasnost , becomes an attachment to the lexical-semantic system of English. Confirmation of this conclusion is also part of speech in word-formation processes: Among the Most Determined Perestroika - blockers are ... ("Economist", 1988).

On the pages of Western newspapers and magazines appeared, and other words that reflect the restructuring of the СССР: novoye muishleniye , democratizatsia ( democratizatsiya ), hozraschot ( khozraschyot ), uskoreniye , gospreyomka .

About word democratizatsia ( democratizatsiya ) Canadian Communist newspaper writes: Democratizatsia ... does not Mean the Same thing as ITS English equivalent - Democratization. Fact in the Soviet concept of Democracy is quite different and May Turn out to be Far more Comprehensive and liberating ("Canadian Tribune", 1988). Thus, using the word democratizatsia , progressive press representatives stressed going beyond the concept of "Western democracy" (which assatsiiruetsya in English speakers with the word). However, in some Western newspapers and magazines word democratizatsia explained or is replaced by democratization.

Word hozraschot ( khozraschyot ) often replaced or explained the English word cost - accounting. However, the concept of progressive press self-financing is usually transmitted by joining the words cost - accounting and self - management (thus emphasizing samouprpvlenie, independence of enterprises in the USSR): ... the first Major Enterprises to be placed on the hozraschot system of full Cost - accounting and Self - Management ("Canadian Tribune ", 1988).

Although the word uskoreniye usually due or replaces the word acceleration, in fact it introduced a broader concept, is writing about, for example, the newspaper of Canadian Communists: Essentially uskoreniye Means the Soviet State is turning to the people to create for themselves the Preconditions for scientific and Technological Transformation ("Canadian Tribune ", 1988). Word gospreyomka explained by descriptive translation: ... or returned by the State quality control agency ( gospreyomka ) ("People's Daily World", 1988).

Media . Newspapers, advertising popularize certain names, and help them get used to the new language environment: The Second section of the Druzhba oil pipeline ... (1971 Novosti Press Agency Publishing House Moscow) (The second section of the oil pipeline "Druzhba" ...). The word friendship enters the English text without translation though as a proper name, but with an open internal form-value. Already do not require explanations and Russianisms, inner form which is hidden. So, in the British newspaper "Morning Star "read: Matrioshkas . Morning Star International Bazaar ("Morning Star", 1974, November 29). This kind of ads are already calculated on the awareness of the reader: Matrioshkas the festive Bazaar 's dedicated newspaper "Morning Star ", is therefore familiar phenomenon, unknown word name is already connected with certain realities. As a tribute, as a recognition of Russian ballet combination Bolshoi Ballet spared many languages without translation.

American newspapers that wrote about the Soviet ballet called one word - Large . It contained combinations of the three Grand Theater, the Bolshoi Ballet, the artists of the Soviet Union, Soviet ballet. Russian word is already designed for mass perception and no longer require explanation.

RUSSIAN NAMES ON MAP Russian names, Russian names seas, straits and bays, islands and headlands, ridges and glaciers and, of course, towns, villages - large and small - are scattered across the world map, there are far beyond the Russian lands. It would seem that these geographical names, proper names belong to geography - the science of the earth, not the science of language. Indeed, at first glance, the names of cities, seas, like people, are arbitrary. And if they say anything about the subject, the very reality that bears the name of one or the other, of those who gave it? Can you tell us about the language, from which are taken?

Russian names on the map of the world - is a milestone on the difficult path of Russian explorers - explorers and navigators. Try to approach from the standpoint of geographical names linguist. Own name - Russian geographic name - a word of Russian.

Boats, schooners, ships brave Russian sailors passed the Arctic Ocean, the Great, or the Pacific ocean, and then the Atlantic. Russian people climbed humped ridges Pamir, Altai, first made maps coast of North America. Not always their way marked milestones Russian names as Russian explorers sought to preserve local names if they already existed. Part of the same Russian names buried in chrede renaming commonly produced subsequent researchers new lands comes from other countries. Yet even a cursory glance at the world map on the dotted Russian words would present historical map heroic journeys, discoveries, settlements, and later bitter migrations in search of a better life.

Map United States about 400 and not more than 200 of Canada map Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian names. Frequent names Russia, Russian and Russian land (in Ohio, Massachusetts, North Dakota, California, Texas, Illinois, Wisconsin). The first settlers in America gave their towns names with a transparent inner form: Fort Russian . Created the illusion of proximity homeland: Fort Russian river Slav , later renamed the Russian . Thirteen towns and localities are named Moscow . The biggest American Moscow in the state Oydaho. Interestingly, the new city could not recall his older brothers. Thus, St. Petersburg , Florida - opposite Russian city. Instead fogs "Northern Palmyra" American Saint Petersburg offers numerous tourists sun, no cloudy days. Therefore, St. Petersburg, Florida called 'solar city'. Not less contrast Black Sea Odessa is Odessa , Texas. This city oilfields, naked, nothing resembling a green Black Sea Odessa. Such a contrast, no external resemblance especially emphasizes the importance of the word and its national-local nuances that make up the essence of the name - a geographical name.

Native name for immigrants finds attractive force. This allows for entrepreneurs industrialists, naming cities and towns names, prompts memories of home. So, in a wave of migration to America Ukrainians in Florida originated Odessa and in Arkansas - Moscow . Pacific Railway Company has made the correct calculation: the name of the village to attract Russian immigrants, provide inflow of workers.

Native names were spokesmen and patriotic feelings. In Michigan appeared Moscow during the Napoleonic wars. While Moscow was the center of attention as a symbol of resistance to Napoleon.

Residents Kaktvelli Bridge (Atlantic Coast, Delaware) in 1855 renamed their town by the name of Odessa . It was during the Crimean War, and Odessa was a symbol of resistance to the enemy.

There are American Kyiv, New Kiev, Poltava, Galich . Numerous villages are named after Russian rivers Volga, Oka, Kama, the Danube, Dnieper .

Part names - a characteristic of the new place, but this native language: Mountains, fertile, Celina, Ditch . Names reflect the impressions received by settlers in their new life in a new place. Here they had and shag, and drain swamps. Outside the world reflected in the word-title.

But there is a name, as if the inner world of dedicated people who suffered, who hoped for a better life in a new place. These are the names Vera, Liberation, Truth, Patience, Praise, peaceful (from 'the world to us'), etc.

The social nature of language is found in the operation of any of the national language in all fields and areas of his life. Geographical names on the world map although representing a small and incomplete picture of language - some words, names, but they show how the world of thoughts, beliefs, feelings Russian man is reflected in the names of the world - geographical names.

Among the stars and planets on the star chart also have Russian names. They also perpetuate our history.

Tell me more one small but symbolic story about the name of the planet number 1900.

During the Great Patriotic War, September 12, 1941 in a dogfight lost military aviator Yekaterina Zelenko. It was the first ram air, aviatrix-perfect woman selflessly fought for the freedom of their homeland. And in memory of Katya Zelenko planetary International Centre approved the new name of the minor planet number 1900 - Katyusha. Opened planet "Soviet astronomer TM Smirnov, she suggested the name ... Every 17 months of "Katyusha" is closer to the Earth, sending its residents pure light of youth, gave the battle for freedom "(" Komsomolskaya Pravda ", 1976, November 7). Katyusha name - is the name of a symbol of our pilots and victory over the enemy in the Great Patriotic War. "Katyusha, Katyusha" - the so-called famous Soviet rocket launchers. "Katyusha" - this is one of the most popular Soviet songs, leafless, probably the whole world. Own name became a symbol of the glorious, generalizing and human feat and feat of the people. Name notes and our scientific advances in the study of the sky.

 

CONCLUSION

 

Russian interest in everything, as we could see the affects in various linguistic borrowing, internationalization and diverse Russianisms Sovietisms, manifests itself in many different language areas, captures different areas of human communication: from book to everyday language, household everyday speech.

To paraphrase Anatole France: "Dictionary - a universe arranged in alphabetical order", we can say that the series of borrowed words arranged in a time sequence - a chronicle of the country's growth, the growth of its international prestige, its political, cultural and scientific technical capacity; comparable number: sundress, salmon, kvass, honey, triple cart with another nearby: Decembrist populist intelligentsia and: Tips, Lenin, Leninism, farm, farm, labor day, satellite, honesty, moonwalker, soft landing, irreversible discharge and Finally, with very different next words that gave us 90 years and some of which even we still are neologisms: lzhedemokrat, lawlessness ( absolute illegality ) , privatization ( Privatisation ) , grabbing ( robbing Privatisation ) , CIS and abroad , openness ( glasnost ), fraud ( machinations ) . Russian Life in all its stages led to life Russian words in the languages of the world.

Russian word samovar, cart, matryoshka national and also cause certain picture of Russian life. But none of these words can not be described in any way characteristic of our country. They belong to history. Words can tell about people, and about his life and the nature of communication between peoples. Borrowed Words - variance worldwide Russianisms - is a milestone for the development of international contacts, marking the movement of Russian culture, science, progressive thought. The process of borrowing words from different languages in different languages - the process of living and never-ending. Do not stop the movement of Russian and other languages in the word. Every time noted for its milestones on the road Russian foreign words. Russian word, which goes beyond the Russian language - and it's a keeper of Russian history and the conductor material and spiritual culture of the country, an authorized representative in the language of international communication.

Word - the conductor of thoughts, feelings, ideas conductor. Word is able to tell a lot of stories of peoples encountered on its historical path. Word can connect, but can disconnect and if one and the same word is interpreted from different ideological positions, with different political, cultural and historical awareness. Welcoming the flags of different countries, listening and sensing multilingual speech, it should be remembered that "every nation can and should learn from others" (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch. 2nd ed. T. 23. S. 20). But not to the detriment of their own language.

Now there is a rapid process of Americanization of Russian society and the Russian language in particular. As for the clogging of modern Russian inostranschinoy, in print and on the radio from it literally expelled native words: review, sketch, drawing, and many hundreds of others. "Our compatriots entire Soviet period invariably lost, and now actually lost obrushno Russian language" / 17, 239 /. "Russian question" to the end of the twentieth century is very nedvesmyslenno: our people to be or not to be?

Language, by definition MV University - is an immense field. According Ivshin VD if the agricultural field for bad care, then it rapidly grow weeds. And the language boundless field appear word-weeds, homegrown and especially outlandish, which must fight and which should be removed from the printed strips linguistic field. More IS Turgenev wrote that the Russian language is so rich that we have nothing to take from those who are poorer than we are called to protect and Russian language and never use foreign words.

 

 

 

 

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Supplement 1

LIST OF RUSSIAN BORROWING IN MODERN ENGLISH

 

CENTURY 16

 

arsheen - a measure of length equal to 0.71 m

Boyar - large landowner, who belonged to the upper stratum of the ruling class

copeck - small coin, a hundredth of a ruble

Kremlin - the town's fortress

kvass - a sour drink is prepared for the water of bread with malt, as well as berries, fruit

muzhik - boorish, uneducated peasant

Rouble - basic monetary unit in Russia, which is equal to 100 kopecks

Sevruga - major food fish of sturgeon semeysva

tsar - the only sovereign and the title of the monarch

verst - a measure of length equal to 1.06 km

 

CENTURY 17

 

Cossack - Cossack, a member of the military and agricultural community of free settlers on the outskirts of the state, is actively involved in the protection and expansion of frontiers

kibitka - covered wagon road

pood - a measure of weight equal to 16.3 kg

Sagene - measure of length equal to three yards of (2.13 m)

sarafan - female peasant clothing, born sleeveless dress, worn over long-sleeved shirts

Steppe - treeless, poor moisture and usually flat space with herbaceous vegetation in the Dry Zone

suslik - small animal from rodents, as well as his fur

telega - four-wheeled carriage for cargo horse-drawn

TSARITSA - the king's wife

 

CENTURY 18

 

balalaika - a plucked string instrument with a triangular myzykalny deck

isba - wooden farmhouse

knout - a rope or strap attached to a stick and employees for prodding the animal, as well as corporal punishment

to knout - a whip to beat

Raskolnik - follower of the religious-social movement that emerged in Russia in the XVII century, directed against the official church

Shuba - top winter clothing with fur

tsarevich - son of the king

ukase - ruling supreme authority having the force of law

Yurt - a portable, cone-shaped housing in some of the nomadic peoples of Asia and South Siberia

 

CENTURY 19

 

Artel - the main form of socialist production association of citizens for collective farming through the socialization of the means of production

Ataman - the name of the leader in the Cossack areas

Blin - thin cake made of batter baked in a pan

bortsch - soup with beets and other vegetables

chernozem - fertile humus soil is dark

Cadet - bourgeois member of the Constitutional Democratic Party

DACHA - country house, usually for a summer holiday

Decembrist - party noble revolutionary liberation movement, which ended the uprising December 14, 1825

droshky - lightweight crew

druzhina - in the imperial army: military unit, which corresponded to the shelf

Duma - the name of a public institution

fieldsher - Physician Assistant with secondary medical education

Karakul - valuable skins of newborn karakul lambs

kasha - dish of cooked cereal

kulak - rich peasant-proprietor, exploiting laborers, poor

Kurgan - Hill

Mazut - oil oily residue obtained after distillation of petroleum gasoline, kerosene

pirog - baked pastry stuffed with

Polynya - unfrozen or already melted spot on the icy surface of a pond

raznochinets -

samovar - a metal container for boiling water tap and inside firebox as high tube, inflatable coals

shchy - cabbage soup

starover - man sticking old opinions, old habits

Taiga - wild, impenetrable forest in the north of Europe and Asia

Tarantas - road four-wheel carriage on long hearse

Tchin - official discharge from the military and civil servants; officer, employee, representative of any agency

troika - team of three horses

Tsarevna - daughter of the king

Vodka - a strong alcoholic drink

zakuska - dishes that have a snack while drinking alcohol

ZEMSTVO - local samouprapvlenie in rural areas with a predominance of the nobility in its bodies

 

CENTURY 20

 

afganets - hot dry south wind

agitprop - rasprostroanenie the masses and explain the oral or written by any views, ideas for the political education of the masses and bring them to the active social and political life

apparat - set of institutions serving any branch of management, economy and party

apparatchik - worker economic and party apparatus

Babushka - an old woman; headscarf kerchief

Bolshevik - a member of the Bolshevik Party, the Communist

commissar - guiding a person with political, administrative functions; political leader of the military unit in charge par with the commander for its combat effectiveness and political condition

glasnost - openness views

Gulag - camp for prisoners of war by the Germans during the Second World War

intelligentsia - knowledge workers have education and expertise in various fields of science, technology and culture

jarovisation - processing of seeds, accelerating their growth and maturation

to jarovize - expose seeds processing, accelerating their growth and maturation

kazachoc - folk dance with the accelerating pace

kissel - gelatinous liquid dish

kolkhoz - production, socialist type, the union of the toiling peasants for collective agriculture (reduced expression of "collective farm")

Komsomol - the Communist Youth League

kulturny - mannered person

Lunik - rocket aimed at the moon

Lunokhod - automatic self-moving vehicle traveling on the Moon

Menshevik - a follower of the Menshevik Party member of the Marxist

narod - the state's population

nekulturny - boor

Niet - no

nitchevo - nothing

nomenklatura - workers who are personally appointed by the highest authority

Paskha - a sweet dish made of curd in the form of a quadrangular pyramid, manufactures the spring holiday of Christ's resurrection, otherwise the cake

pelmeny - food - kind of small cakes of unleavened dough with meat consumed in cooked form

Perestroika - reorganization of the Soviet economic and political system

Distibution of Russian words in English to the period