Translational transformations as an essence of translation. Posttranslated text analysis

Content

Introduction	5
1	Predtranslated analysis of the source text.	8
1.1	General description source translation	8
1.2	General characteristics of the text	9
1.3	Pragmatics text	11
2	Translational transformations as an essence of translation	13
2.1	Translation as a specific component of communication	13
2.2	Translational transformation	17
3	Posttranslated text analysis.	37
3.1	Lost in Translation book Iris Chang "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II "	37
3.2	Lexical transformation	38
3.3	Grammatical transformations	46
3.4	Lexical-grammatical transformations	55
Conclusion	59
List of used literature	60

Introduction

This work is devoted to Graduate Translation artistic and journalistic text, its difficulties and peculiarities. General provisions on the difficulties of translation, as well as private and complexity of translation features artistic and journalistic text, we illustrate an example of the translation of the book "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II, "American writer of Chinese origin Iris Chang.

Science deals with the study on the transfer of a wide range of theoretical and practical problems. The translator can properly fulfill its Started, it is necessary to understand and take into account many different aspects: structure and text case, intentions and implications of the author and ways to express them, the time of writing, etc. All these issues affect the translation, its adequacy and equivalence. According to VN Komissarov, " Definition of the concepts of adequacy and equivalence and today remains the focus of translators, and this problem is solved by the use of much more successful when comparing the original text and translation methods for analyzing the content and structure of the text, developed in the framework of text linguistics. " [Commissioners 1990:6] Therefore, in this paper will be presented a comparative analysis of the original text and the translated text to determine the characteristic of this type of texts and the difficulties to achieve adequacy text. It should be remembered about the difference in terms of adequacy and equivalence translation, since one is not the other causes: "Adequate translation - a translation that meets the goal. The desire to provide value determines if the translation, and therefore the concept of "value" refers to the process of translation, which can be an adequate way. "Equivalence" refers to the result of the translation and functional compliance means text translation of the original text. So the translation may not be carried out "in an equivalent way," but it may be equivalent to achieve a particular result as a translation adequacy defined goals. " [1:82].

"Journalistic style has its primary function will impact on the consciousness and chu vstva listener or reader" [2:115], which means that it simultaneously performs the cognitive, emotional and informative function. This implies translation problems whose solutions often require deviations from the original, ie, violation of the equivalence of the translated text and the original text, in order to achieve the adequacy of the final text.

Consequently, the translator, since the preliminary stage of translation, there should be ongoing and comprehensive analysis of the text and its individual units to subsequently give an adequate interpretation of all text, including images used by the author, metaphors, similes, and other arts envy

funds. However, unlike the purely artistic text, art about - journalistic text also implies a clear text structure, active evaluation of the author, the use of typical for this style clichs and strict adherence to the principle of accessibility and clarity of the text to the general public. The translator must feel deeply the text to translate it perfectly combines all of these aspects.

As a theoretical basis for the writing of this paper were the works of linguists following: Arnold IV Komissarov VN, Kazakova T., Levitsky AM, Petrova OV, VV Sdobnikov etc .

Object of study of this work is translated us artistic and journalistic text.

The subject of analysis are lexical and grammatical difficulties of translation.

The purpose of this paper is to translate into Russian artistic and journalistic text and analyze and the difficulties that are met in the process of translation, namely to assess the adequacy and use of certain transformations, depending on the specifics of the source material.

In accordance with the object and subject of study, as well as to achieve Delivered purposes it's in Dunn works are following tasks and e:

1) Analyze selec th s artistic and journalistic text and translate it into Russian.

2) Conduct a comparative analysis of the original text and the translated text to identify the main difficulties of translation.

3) Justify decisions made by translation under the criteria of equivalence and adequacy.

To achieve these purposes it's and for the tasks to be done a number of operations, including the following aspects:

1) Analysis and description of the original text, ie Gathering information about the author of the second, assuming the target audience aemoy text tim of writing. This stage also includes background information search. Background information - information that sociocultural characteristic only for a particular nation or nationality, mastered weight of their representatives, as reflected in the language of the national community. [3: 19]

2) Identify the main problem of the text: the definition of intentions and implications of the author, the analysis used linguistic resources.

3) Determining register the translated text.

4) Characterization of translational transformations, as a means of solving the difficulties of translation.

5) Commentary to translation solutions.

6) Illustration translation trudnos children and ways to overcome them by the example of the selected text.

This work is in the transport and fundamental step a: analysis of the source text (predperevodchesky analysis), text translation and analysis of translation solutions.

At the first stage we have thoroughly studied the e amu original text to give him a general characterization and reveal its pragmatics.

In the second stage we pens odim text considering pragmatic communication, composite and other aspects, which appear in the lexical, grammatical and syntactical features of the original text. Translator must be able to correctly choose the appropriate translation of compliance, ie PYA units regularly used for the translation of the DICE unit. [4:10]

S third milestone - an illustration Use of translational transformations examples from the text.

The choice of the subject studied Ia books and Iris Chang "Reznya in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II "for the following reasons:

1) The book is a fine example of art m - Journalistic text.

2) In terms of content the book is a great informational value, as describes historically Events that e detail does not reflect any one Russian-speaking m documentary work. Therefore, this work can help russkoya stentorian reader familiar with these historical events.

3) Translatable text contains a wealth of material for a comprehensive analysis of the translation.

1 Predtranslated analysis of the source text.

In this chapter are given those aspects of translation analysis to help better understand the interpreter source code and its specificity to start translating. This process occurs in several stages:

1) Initial stage predtranslated analysis is to collect information about external text: author information and sources that he used to write St. Oei work, creation time, etc.

2) The second stage involves extending characterization of text. Here we should pay attention to the following aspects:

• P The potential target audience of the text resulting from the functional style of text and speech genre. Recipient necessary to clarify the text in order to select the language features that you want to convey in translation.
  • Type of information embedded in the text, which later will condition the transfer method. For artistic and journalistic style characterized by the presence of the following types of information:

a) Cognitive, ie objective information about the outside world. Translation in this case should be carried out to-one correspondence. Especially when it comes to terminology. Cognitive the information often drawsed in text e means the literary norm.

b) Emotsional - Greetings, opinions, estimates. Such information interpreter should be via emotive vocabulary and syntax.

c) Esthetic - Often under this kind of information implies the use of metaphors, rhymes, puns, etc. In this case, the translator must try to realize their creative potential and to try to find or even create an adequate equivalent.

• To communicative text function: to make contact, to inform inform ation, convince of the rightness, etc. Often in the text combined several functions.
  • Speech text genre, that is, its stable model forms are international.
    • Compositional semantic structure of the text, ie compositional voice form semantic units, the nature of their construction and communications.

3) In the third stage of analysis, we consider predperevodcheskogo n ragmaticheskuyu structure of the text, ie author's intent, its assessment, communicative text effect. We remember that Prague matic aspect or pragmatics PEREVI yes called ed "The Impact in the course and outcome of the process must first evodcheskogo STI reproduce pragmatic potential of the original page and e emleni provide the desired effect on the impact eptora Retz." [20: 210] Translator for such information is relevant only as one of the main tasks translator - is the transmission capacity pragmatic text.

Compliance with all stages predperevodcheskogo analysis is crucial to select the translator properly the strategists and translation.

 

 

1.1 General description source translation

 

We have chosen to translate and analyze the text is taken from the book Iris Chan "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II ", which was first published in 1997 American publishing BasicBooks, and then reprinted in 1998 by Penguin Group Incorporated (C SHA).

The book is written by American writers of her oh, historian and journalist th th Iris Chan, who was born March 28 1968 in Princeton , New Jersey, in a family of young American scientists of Chinese origin. She devoted her life that she had written a book about the fate of immigrants from China to America. Worldwide fame it brought her book and analyzed by us in the year of publication, it became a bestseller in America and some European countries. Copyright held enormous research that took her 2 years. In the process of Iris Chan used a huge number of primary sources, namely, blogs, movies and photos belonging to the witnesses of those events. The result of her work was awesome and the first of its kind in the English-language documentary book describing Nanking tragedy. After working on a book described by Iris Chang experienced seizures depression . In August 2004 she suffered a nervous breakdown, within three days received medical treatment in a psychiatric hospital in Louisville , where she was in search of material for his fourth book (the conquest of the Japanese Philippines - The so-called in Bataan death march ). Doctors suspected in having developed Chan manic-depressive illness , she was constantly taking medication. On the morning of November 9, 2004 she was found near Los Gatos dead in his car (shot from a revolver). Iris Chang is considered the last second victim Nanjing Massacre.

To Book Publication on crimes in Nanjing withstood 5 editions in America, has been translated into many languages, including Hebrew, Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Unfortunately, for unknown reasons, the book still has not been translated into Russian.

 

  

1.2 General characteristics of the text

 

The book "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II "was written primarily to enable a highly publicized tragedy, therefore, it is aimed at the widest possible audience.

In the book we are talking about the massacre that occurred in 1937 with the outbreak of war between China and Japan. In August of that year, after the bloody and fierce fighting Japanese troops entered Shanghai. Japanese first managed to Shanghai, and then fell and the then capital of China Nanjing.

December 13, 1937 in Nanjing, who broke the Japanese massacre of civilians. For about six weeks, soldiers burned and looted the city, destroying most brutal ways of its inhabitants, raping women. Number of injured civilians is estimated by China 300 000 dead and more than 20,000 women raped (from seven-year girls to old women). According to the postwar tribunals number killed at more than two hundred thousand. One reason for the difference in figures is that some researchers include the number of victims of Nanjing Massacre killed only within the city, and also take account of other victims in Nanjing.

Despite the fact that after the war a number of Japanese military were convicted for the massacre in Nanjing, since the 1970s the Japanese side is pursuing a policy of denial Presto prisoner committed in Nanjing.

The book contains many factual (Cognitive) information such as dates, names, references to historical events, statistics, etc.:

• On December 13, 1937, Nanking, the capital city of Nationalist China, fell to the Japanese.
• ... Half-year struggle against Chiang Kai-shek's armies in the Yangtze Valley.
• Ameri cans think of World War II as begin ning on December 7, 1941, when Japanese carrier-based airplanes attacked Pearl Harbor. Europeans date it from September 1, 1939, and the blitzkrieg assault on Poland by Hitler's Luftwaffe and Panzer divisions.

W The reader can clearly identify the position of the author, since the text is replete with epithets expressing the author's evaluation of events.

• But even more telling was that those who had brought about these deaths (the most terror-filled, even if inevitable, tragedy of the human experi e nce) could also degrade the victims and force them to expire in maximum pain and humiliation.

Iris Chang also frequently uses stylistic devices such as metaphors, similes, and other emphatic design to give the text of the impressiveness and emotion, in order to have a more effective impact on the reader:

• We will never know everything that happened in the many cities and small villages that found themselves prostrate beneath the boot of this conquering force.
• ... If the dead from Nank ing were to link hands, they would stretch from Nanking to the city of Hangchow, spanning a distance of some two hundred miles.

In addition, we note that the text of the book has a clear logical structure. Each new idea certainly stands paragraph. Overall there are three main parts of the book, which we can call the three main semantic blocks. In the first part we see through the eyes of the Japanese planned attack in the second part we get acquainted with the history of the victims of those events, and in the third we learn about the fate of this tragedy in the postwar period, when Japan and Western countries tried to erase these events from the world's consciousness. Besides, author identifies the preface, which provides a brief overview of the book entry, where the reasons of writing the book and the conclusion, where the author concludes and summarizes. The book provides a comprehensive list of sources used and a number of documentary photographs with explanations.

Selected for the analysis of the book, namely the preface, introduction and conclusion are the most capacious in the informative terms, this means that their contributions gives a complete overview of all the meters work, th e structure, style, semantics.

It should also be noted that the text includes a number of stereotyped expressions:

• ... We use the most conservative number
• Jap an's first steps toward the mil itary domination
• ... two governments were competi ng for Japanese trade and polit ical recognition.
• ... An act that one Amer ican wartime victim of the Japanese has labeled politically equivalent to

Based on the author used the funds can be concluded that the text under consideration "has as its main function will impact on the consciousness and chu vstva listener or reader of Tell" [Arnold IV 2002:115].

Since all of the above characteristics of the text, we conclude that the product of all the signs belongs to the artistic-journalistic style.

Also it should be noted that the text prevail lexical items related to military issues, so the translator should be possible to adequately translate this specialized vocabulary, focusing on sustainable transfer expressions.

 

 

1.3 Pragmatics text

 

We know that the work of re interpreter is always directed at understanding the original author's intent, expressed in the text, and to ensure that the impact on the reader (listener), which is calculated on the original authors. This does not mean that the translator does not enter into a relationship with the text and the original and even more so with text transfer water (which he actually creates). One of the main problems pragmatic - it is a problem of the actions being taken by the translator to induce the beneficiary desired eaktsiyu p. Implementation of the action of - the essence of pragmatic adaptation of the text, that is, to bring the text into a form that is possible to facilitate its perception and the way exists exert th appropriate communicative effect you. [VV Sdobnikov, OV Petrova 2008 :163-165]

The main task we are studying the text is the impact on the will, consciousness and feelings of the reader, providing rich soil for thought. Author Iris Chang uses various means to achieve pragmatic goals: lexical, syntactic, structural, grammatical, lexical and grammatical. K In addition, the author identifies italics units falling under logical stress. You can also select graphical tools, which include breakdown, typefaces, layout of paragraphs, pictures, dots and even the order of presentation.

By means of implementing lexical pragmatics researched text can include the use of military terminology, proper names, historical dates, estimated lexicon, emotive words, phraseological units, metaphors and stylistic coloring x s epithet.

The text includes such syntactic means as using introductory words and designs slozhnosochinennyh and complex sentences, emphatic constructions, and inversion and citations.

The structural funds provides a clear division of the text into sections (chapters), subsections (paragraphs), paragraphs, paragraphs and subparagraphs. In the investigated th book can distinguish three main semantic block, each decorated in a separate chapter. Each chapter is divided into sections according to the logical-semantic principle. In addition, the book stand preface introduction and conclusion, which we regard as a research subject.

To express the pragmatics of text, the author uses a series of x and z rammaticheski lexical and grammatical means. In the text there are p azlichnye tenses of verbs that help to convey the chronology of events. ovestvovanie P in the text in the first person, ie Preval iruet use of pronouns of the first person singular "I". T akzhe by relatively often uses the pronoun "we" to unite addresser and addressee and the addressee of directing attention to the subject of the speech, the research topic. The text is marked active use superlative adjectives that contributes to the emotional function of the text.

 Summary

Analysis showed that the analyzed text has informative and focuses on emotional and cognitive impact on the reader.

Consequently, the task of the translator is to fully reflect the informative component of the text, to convey its structural and logical structure, while maintaining the communicative intentions of the author. The solution to this problem is to develop strategies for the use of lexical, grammatical and lexical and grammatical translation transformations.

An important aspect of the test text translation is adequate transfer of lexical specificity tex, namely military terminology, proper names, titles any historical events, etc.

One of the main tasks of the translator is to transfer the text style, ie use of lexical, syntactic and composite units that will meet artistic and journalistic mu yu stil Russian language.

For an adequate translation of the test text translator should be familiar with more on the Russian-language literature described in the text of historical events. This is necessary for a better understanding of the problems of the text and to find a foothold in the Russian language names of various historical events and names. In addition, the study further reading help the translator understand the realities associated with the culture of the United States, China and Japan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Translational transformations as an essence of translation

2.1 Translation as a specific component of communication

One of the most remarkable phenomena of our time, increased the need for dialogue between peoples and individuals and repeatedly surpassing everything that was in the past, the implementation of this requirement. Development of transport, media and communication, increasing cultural and educational levels, awareness of the need of understanding and cooperation, seek ways and means of solving global problems of today - all of this can only be achieved by the combined efforts of all nations and all people. Without a doubt, all of these factors are a powerful stimulus for the development of translational activity. Generally, the modern world, the way it appears to us today, and how, under our assumptions, it will be by 2010 year, gives you the opportunity to see what a great place now occupied by a translation in the scientific, political and cultural life of each country and around the world .
"Of course we are far from absolute to the role and importance of translation. Undoubtedly, translation is an active participant in the modern process and without it is impossible to imagine the world today ... Translation can and should be for all people carrier, the conductor and the discoverer of the most precious. " (16:18)
So what is a "translation"? The answer to the question "what is the translation?" Can not be unique. First of all, you can not understand the translation and give it a scientific definition, excluding its social nature, social essence. Transfer can not occur, exist outside of society to function. Range of activities covered by the term "transfer" is very broad. Translation is known to be "poetry, fiction, non-fiction books from different fields of knowledge, diplomatic documents, business papers, news stories, interviews people speaking different languages and forced to resort to the assistance of a mediator." (23:15). Translation-indivisible part of the spiritual culture of each country and its people, the spiritual culture of all mankind. Translation can not be understood, and the more scientific defined if it does not consider the terms of its linguistic essence, if not reveal its linguistic bases, its linguistic nature. After all, no doubt, that the translation is primarily a linguistic activity. Translation based language translator working with the language. Language-foundation and basic translation tool. Translation can not be understood unless it is disclosed its ability to reflect and recreate the original. Translation is a reflection of the original. Than rather than a reflection of the integrity, the higher the quality of the translation. "The translation should not only reflect, but also to re-create the original, not a" copy "of its content and form, and re-create them by means of another language to another reader who is under a different culture, era, society." (16:29). Transfer can not be understood if it will not be disclosed psychology. Translation is difficult, complex and productive creative process, which involves all the spiritual forces of human intelligence, intuition, emotion, imagination, will, memory. Translation is a creative process, which generates the translated works. And finally, the transfer can not be scientifically comprehended if we consider it in the unhistorical. Translation appears historically at a certain stage of human development, there is historically developed historically with the development of social, cultural and other processes. If to all this we add inherent in translating complex internal and external relationships, it becomes even clearer that the simplified one-sided approach to translation is wrong and scientifically unfounded and that it is impossible to give the notion of "translation" unequivocal scientific definition. Of course, the complexity of the object should not hinder the possibility of a deeper and comprehensive answer to the question "what did this translation?" Here are some of the most common definitions.
RK Mignard-Beloruchev: "Transfer-kind speech activity that doubles the communication components, which is intended to send a message in cases where the codes used by source and destination are not the same." (17:136).
AV Fedorov: "Translate means to express the true and full means one language that has previously expressed by means of another language ... purpose of the translation-as close as possible to acquaint the reader (or listener), not knowing the language of the original, with the given text (or content of speech) . " (23:15).
EV Breus: "Transfer-act interlingual communication. Upon transfer takes place not only the spirit of language contact, but contact between the two cultures. "(3:17)
VN Commissioners outlines four linguistic theory and, consequently, leads four definitions of translation. According denotative theory, translation is "the process of describing the target language using the denotations described in the original language." (10:32). According to the theory of transformational, "translation is nothing like converting units and structures in the original language units and structures of the target language." (10:38). According to the theory of meaning, translation "is to uncover the essence of equivalence ratios between the content of the original and the translation." (10:43). Theory of levels of equivalence offers "model translation, based on the assumption that the equivalence relations are established between similar levels of content and translation of texts." (10:62).
LS Barkhudarov: "Translation is the process of converting a voice work in one language in a voice work in another language while maintaining constant of the content, ie the values." (2:11).
And yet, what is a "translation" in the light of existing achievements general theory of translation?
"If we want to define translation as a result of translation activity in the most general and summary form, it can be formulated as follows: there is an analog of the original translation. Perfect translation have the perfect analogue of the original, created new social, cultural and linguistic reality ... If we want to give as much as possible a more complete and accurate with respect to the total theoretical definition of translation as a process, it must be said that the translation is specific oral or written activities aimed at rebuilding the existing one language spoken or written text (work) in another language while preserving the invariance of the content and quality of the original. "(16:33). To learn and to know the laws of translation as a specific activity that occurred in the process of historical development and the historical practice of human society and to open new ways and possibilities to improve it, you need to explore all kinds of translation. Necessary to examine the whole system appeared in practice kinds of translation activities, investigate it for what it really is, in all its diversity and interaction with other human activities. The only way to grasp the essence of the activity, which is included in the concept of "transfer"

. Main purpose of the transfer-achieving adequacy. The main task of the translator when the adequacy-ably produce various translation transformation to the target text as closely as possible to transmit all information contained in the original text, subject to the relevant rules of the translation language.

Transformation by which the transition from original units to units of translation, called translational transformations. However, the term "transformation" can not be taken literally: the original text itself "not converted" in the sense that it does not change by itself. This text, of course, he is left alone, but along with them on the basis of it create another text in another language. (2:6).
Translation transformation are a special kind of paraphrase, cross-language, which is quite different from transformations within a single language. "When we talk about monolingual transformations, we are referring to the phrase, which differ from each other in grammatical structure, lexical content, have (almost) the same content and are able to perform in this context the same communicative function. (7:3). Comparing the original and transforms texts we unconsciously note that some sections of the original text translated "word for word", and some are significant deviations from the literal correspondences. Particularly noticeable places where translates text in its linguistic means totally different from the original. Therefore, in our linguistic consciousness, there are some cross-language correspondence deviations from which we perceive as a cross-language transformation. Depending on the nature of the units of the original language, which are considered as the initial operation, translation transformation divided into stylistic transformation, the essence of which is to change the stylistic coloring transferable units. (13:180) (When I could stand it no longer I raised myself upon my knees , still keeping hold with my hands, and thus got my head clear. - When I felt that the forces of change to me, I sat up on his knees, not letting go of the ring from his hand, and my head was above water.
Morphological transformation - the substitution of one part of speech or other multiple parts of speech. (With how vast a triumph-with how vivid a delight-with how much at all that is ethereal in hope did I feel, as she bent over me in studies but little sought-but less known, - that delicious vista by slow degress expanding before me ... - What infinite triumph with which gleeful delight with what high hopes I recognize when Ligeia leaned over me during my studies (without a request, almost imperceptibly), that delicious prospect that slowly unfolded before me.
Syntactic transformation - the essence of which is to change the syntactic functions of words and phrases. Change syntactic functions in the translation process is accompanied by rearrangement of syntactic structures: convert one type to another subordinate clause. It also relates syntactic transformations replacing Russian Russian active passive construction. (13:181) (He hath been by the Tarantula). Tarantula bite him ...

Semantic transformations - are carried out on the basis of various causal relations that exist between the elements described situations (He was the kind of guy that hates to answer you right away. - Such as it is, did not immediately respond.

Lexical-transformation is the deviation from the direct word correspondences. Lexical transformation caused mainly by the fact that the volume of the original values of lexical units and the target language is not the same (She wasn `t looking too happy.) - She looked pretty miserable. Grammatical transformations, is to convert the sentence structure in the translation process in accordance with the rules of the target language. We got under way with a mere breath of wind, and for many days stood along the easten coast of Java, without any other incident to beguile the monotony of our course than the occasional meeting with some of the small grabs of the Archipelago to which we were bound. - We left the port at a barely perceptible breeze and for long days walking along the eastern coast of Java. Monotony of our voyage was broken only occasionally meeting with small coasters with those islands, where we kept on his way. In the process of transformation of translation activities are most often of mixed type. As a rule, various transformations are carried out simultaneously, that is combined with each other - is accompanied by the replacement of permutation, followed by lexical grammatical transformation. (5:18) In the previous example, we see a combination of grammatical transformations (namely the union proposals) and lexical (omission - Archipelago.) It is such a complex and comprehensive nature of translational transformations and makes the translation of such complex and difficult.

These translation transformation are contextually synonymous replacement tokens. These examples of different types of transformations interlanguage clearly enough show that the translation transformation in many cases lead to certain modifications of the content.

Morphological transformation of virtually nothing in terms of content do not change. Syntactic transformations affect the original content of minimal degree.

Semantic transformations associated with deeper modifications in terms of content. Comparing the languages, we find in each of them, such phenomena that have no match in the other. Translation-transformation are the translation process. (18:47)

Having considered the views of translational transformations, we proceed to examine their classification proposed by scholars such as LS Barhudarova, VN Komissarov and Frenkel Retskerom.

2.2 Translational transformation

Translation from one language to another is not possible without grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations - this is primarily the restructuring proposals (changes in its structure) and all kinds of replacement - both syntactic and morphological order. Grammatical transformations are caused by various reasons - as a purely grammatical and lexical character, while the primary role played by grammatical factors, ie differences in the structure of language.

When comparing the grammatical categories and forms of English and Russian languages are usually found the following phenomena: 1) the absence of a category in one of the languages; 2) overlap; 3) a complete coincidence. Need for grammatical transformations occurs naturally only in the first and second cases. In the Russian language, compared with English, there are no grammatical categories such as article or gerund and infinitive and complexes involved and nominative absolute construction. Partial agreement or disagreement within the meaning and use of appropriate forms and grammatical structures also requires transformation. This could include such things as partial mismatch category number, partial mismatch in the forms of passive design, incomplete coincidence infinitive forms and participles, some differences in terms of modality, etc.

We first discuss the article, because the article (as defined and undefined), despite its highly abstract meaning, often requires a semantic expression in the translation. As is well known, both have pronomial Part origin: the definite article is derived from the demonstrative, and indefinite - from indefinite pronouns, which dates back to the numeral one. These initial values of articles occasionally appear in their modern usage. In such cases, their lexical meaning is to be transferred in the translation, otherwise Russian proposal would be incomplete and inaccurate, as denotative meaning of articles semantically is an integral part of the semantic content of a sentence (3). Very clearly favored by his historical connection with the numeral one in the following example:

Yet H. G. (Wells) had not an enemy on earth. (G. B. Shaw)

But Herbert was not a single enemy in the world. Value of the definite article is also often require the transfer in translation, especially when he stands before the numeral. Only in the fields where talent cannot be hidden have the young conquered - the theatre, music, football, computers, physics, fashion. ("Daily Mail")Youth nominated only in those cases where you can not hide the natural talent (I mean theater, music, football, electronics, physics, fashion). Of all the above translation is clear that ignoring the lexical and grammatical meaning sometimes when translating Part would lead to incomplete or inaccurate transmission of content. In Russian, no infinitive complexes that are so common in English. We consider only the translation complex infinitive with the preposition for. On its return journey the spacecraft must be accelerated to some 25,000 mph for it to enter the earth's orbit. ("The Times")On returning speed of the spacecraft must be brought up to about 25,000 miles per hour, so that he could go into orbit. In this case, the infinitive-clause translates complex goals. However, very often grammatical transformations are necessary and appropriate transfer forms and designs due to some differences in their meaning and use. Such discrepancies are observed, for example, the category number in use. United Nations Secretary General U Thant has strongly criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa. ("Morning Star")UN Secretary-General U Thant criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their own policies with Africa. Noun "politics" has no plural for the word "politics" is the plural form of the noun "politician" - politician. As for uncountable nouns, especially those which express abstract concepts, here the number of mismatches may be more. For example: ink - ink, money - money, watch - watches, news - news, and vice versa: to keep the minutes - keep a record, to live in the suburbs - to live in the suburbs, on the outskirts - on the outskirts, grapes - grapes, shrimp - shrimp, etc. Discrepancy is detected and in some cases the use of the infinitive. Russian has no infinitive is not perfect, nor long lasting shape.

Thus, all the above conditions - lack of appropriate shape, overlap, differences in the nature and use of forms - necessitate grammatical transformations in translation. Grammatical transformations can be divided into two types: permutations and substitutions.

Permutation transformation as a kind of translation - is changing the location (the order of) the language elements in the translated text from the text of the original. Elements that may be subjected to permutation: words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, separate proposals.
Permutations are due to several reasons, the main one being the difference in the structure (word order) offers English and Russian languages. English sentence usually begins with the subject (or subject group), followed by a verb (the predicate group), ie Theorem - message center (the most important) - is in the first place. Theme (background information) - the circumstances (time and place) often located at the end of sentences.
Russian word order offers another: in the beginning of sentences are often secondary members (the circumstances of time and place), followed by the predicate and is only at the end - the subject. This should be considered in translation. This phenomenon is known as "communicative division proposals."
The most common case permutations - changing the order of words and phrases in the sentence structure, script associated with the communicative articulation:
Molasses buckets appeared from nowhere.
Buckets appeared from nowhere out of molasses.
In the translation process can be observed permutation of one sentence to another, as in the following example:... I put on this hat that I'd bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks.
I. .. wearing a red cap, which bought the morning in New York. It was a hunting cap, with a very, very long peak.
The need for such transfer in this case is determined by repeating the noun "hat", to which the reversible adjective "red", in two adjacent sentences.
Often there is a change in the translation order of Clauses - main and subordinate (paranasal) offers:
If he ever gets married, his own wife'll probably call him "Ackley".
Probably, and the wife will call him "Ackley" - if only he would ever get married.
English clause precedes the main, in the Russian translation of the same - on the contrary, the main precedes a subordinate. Possible otherwise.
Permutation may be subject to independent and proposals in the text.
"You goin 'to court this morning?" Asked Jem. We had strolled over.
We went up to her fence. - You go to court? - Jim asked.
The need for shifts in this case due to the fact that the shape of Past Perfect in the second sentence expresses the meaning of the English text preceding this action with respect to the actions identified in the first sentence. Since the Russian form of "come" does not express such values, the preservation of the original order of the sentences in the translation could lead to a distortion of meaning (the action denoted by the verb "to come" would be perceived as the following, with respect to the action expressed by the verb "asked") .
Permutation (as a kind of translation transformation) are quite common, they are often accompanied by other types of translational transformations.
Replacements
Replacement - the most common and diverse view of translational transformations. Translating replacement may be subject to grammatical units - forms of words, parts of speech, of the sentence, types of syntactic communication, etc.
a) Replacement of word forms
Replacement forms words imply replacement number nouns, verbs and time etc.
The Nile Valley appears to have been unfit for human habitation during the Stone Ages. (M. A. Murray)
Nile River Valley, apparently, was unfit for human life during the Stone Age (in all periods of the Stone Age).
In the Russian language is a combination of the stone age and historical term is never used in the plural.
English norms dictate the use of present tense forms in subordinate clauses of time or condition, ie, where the Russian equivalent of the verb will be in the form of the future tense:
If you will stand out free time, please write to me.
If you have some free time, please drop me a note.
Nobody knew what he meant.
Nobody knew what he had in mind.
In other cases, changing the forms of words caused purely stylistic reasons.
The candidate hopes the residents of New Hapmshire will cast their votes for him.
Candidate hopes that residents of New Hampshire will give him your vote.
b) Replacement of parts of speech
This type of replacement is very common. Its simplest form - the so-called "pronominalizatsiya" noun or pronoun replacement. For example:
At first he was hanging in the room of his grandfather, but soon his grandfather drove us to the attic because Starling learned teasing grandpa ... (Gorky, Childhood, VII)
When translating from English into Russian happening reverse pronouns replacing nouns.
Very typical replacement when translating from English into Russian is the replacement of verbal noun to verb in personal form. Here are examples of this type of replacement:
Not had one of those very piercing whistles that was practically never in tune ... (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 4)
He whistled piercingly awful and always false ...
(Here, as in other subsequent examples, the replacement of a noun verb adjective also requires replacement defining noun, adverb on: piercing - piercing.)
Is legitimate and normal replacement of the translation of the English verbal noun - the name of figure (usually with the suffix - er) to Russian personal form of the verb (20). Examples of this kind are very common:
"Oh, I'm no dancer, but I like watching her dance." (G. Greene, The Quiet American, p. I, Ch. Ill)
And I do not dance, I just love to watch her dance, (trans. R. Wright and S. Kovalev Mitya)
I am a very good golfer. (Ib., 11)
I am very well play golf ... When transferring have been other types of replacements parts of speech, and often they are also accompanied by the replacement of the sentence, that is restructuring the syntactic structure of the sentence.

c) Replacement of the sentence (restructuring syntactic structure of the sentence)

When replacing the words of the sentence and a group of words in the translated text is rearranged syntactic scheme for constructing sentences. Reasons for such adjustment may be different. Most often it is caused by the need to transfer "communicative division" of the proposal, which was discussed above. The most common example of this kind of syntactic reconstruction - replacement of Russian Russian active passive construction in which the subject is replaced by the British in the Russian proposal supplement worth at the beginning of sentences; English addition to the preposition by the translation into Russian or become subject to subject non-existent (the so-called "indefinite personal" design); form of the passive voice of the English verb form is replaced by the active voice of the Russian verb. For example:

Not was met by his sister. His sister met.

He was given money. He was given money. He is considered to be a good student. He is considered a good student. Translation from Russian into English reverse happens replacement "asset - liability".

Pretty ordinary (although they are not described in the normative grammar) are also cases when the English subject in the Russian translation replaced circumstance. This transformation also requires replacement of a transitive verb intransitive verb English sentence (or, rarely, in the verb form of the passive voice) in the Russian proposal. For example: The last week has seen an intensification of the diplomatic activity ... During the past week there was a revitalization of diplomatic activity ... (or: Last week there was ...) This turn of the verb see (devoid of concrete lexical meaning and denoting here only the very existence, of being an event or phenomenon) is very typical of the English language press; Wed: 1973 saw ... - In 1973 ...; The next week will see ... - Next week ...; Tonight sees ... - Tonight, etc. The functions of complement to the verb see verbal noun commonly used character type publication, beginning, renewal, performance, etc., which is transformed into a Russian translation of the verb-predicate: was published, began , resumed, was executed, etc.

A similar transformation has occurred in other cases, when the English subject to express various adverbial value. In the Russian translation of the English subject is replaced by circumstance places:

The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration ...

Today, in the small town of Clay Cross, a mass demonstration ...

This type of turnover often found in scientific texts genre.

Of course, when translating from Russian into English is "opposite" replacement circumstances subject, accompanied by other required replacements. In many cases, the restructuring of the syntactic structure is determined not by considerations of grammatical and stylistic order. Thus, in the example below there is a simultaneous exchange of the sentence as well as parts of speech: After dinner they talked long and quietly. (S. Maugham, Before the Party) After lunch, they had a long, heartfelt conversation. (Trans. E. Kalashnikova) Thus, in most cases, when translated from English to Russian Russian proposal is not superimposed on the English, does not coincide with it in its structure. Often the structure of Russian proposals in translation is completely different from the structure of an English sentence. It different word order, the other parts of the sentence following, often another order of the proposals themselves - the main, subordinate and introductory. In some cases, parts of speech, which expressed members of the British proposals transmitted respectively other parts of speech. All this explains the widespread use of grammatical transformations in translation.

Lexical transformation

As we have seen grammatical transformations obyslovleny difference in structure of the two languages - the original language and the target language. Let us consider the lexical transformations. In his work "The rate of exchange" Latyshev LK lexical transformation defines as "deviation from the dictionary matches" / Latyshev LK, 1981:180 /. In the lexical systems of English and Russian languages are observed discrepancies that occur in the type of the semantic structure of the word. Any word. Ie lexical unit - is part of the lexical system. This explains the uniqueness of the semantic structure of words in different languages. Therefore, the essence of lexical transformations is to "replace the individual lexical units (words and phrases) FL IL lexical units that are not their dictionaries and equivalents, ie, that have a different meaning than they transmit in the translation unit DICE" / Barkhudarov , 1975: 196 /.There are many reasons causing lexical transformation, and complete coverage of the reasons there is no possibility. Therefore, we will limit their choice only some of the major causes of the need for this type of transformation. In the meaning of words in different languages are often allocated different features of the same phenomenon or concept, which reflects the vision of the world peculiar to a given language, or rather, the carriers of the language, which inevitably creates difficulties in translation. Compare for example, glasses and goggles. In English, the word stands out the material from which the object is made, and in Russian - its function: the second eye (eyes). Or: Hot milk with skin on it. (P. H. Johnson) Hot milk with foam. This phenomenon is actually associated in English with the skin, skin covering the body or fetus, whereas in the Russian language in the framework of the word on the results of boiling - foam appears when the milk boils and foams. English word herring-bone (work) in the Russian language in the tree correspond to the combination, herringbone (bricklaying, stitch pattern). In the Russian language association with a tree - a spruce in English - with ridge herring. Image in the Russian language is associated with an abundance of forests, in English - with the proximity of the sea. However, despite the selection of various features, both the first equally adequately reflect the same phenomenon is true. This linguistic fact observed in so many words. The second reason that causes lexical transformation is the difference in the amount of semantic word. There is absolutely identical words in FL and IL. Most often, the first match of the lexical-semantic variant (LSV) of such words, their main value, followed by various LSV, since the development of the values of these words went different ways. This is due to the functioning of the various words in the language, the difference in use, different compatibilities, but even the basic meaning of an English word may be wider than the corresponding Russian word (of course, not excluded the opposite case). In the analysis of the semantic structure of the adjective mellow immediately catches the eye, it is multi-valued word and can detect a very wide range of subjects and concepts: fruit, wine, soil, voice, man. Each sphere of its use corresponds to a single value. But each value in turn correspond to two or more Russian words. English-Russian dictionary sometimes gives them just separated by commas. This suggests that each LSV is not covered by a Russian word, because it contains two or more semes that require two or more transmission words Russian. Thus, the first value - ripe, soft, sweet, juicy (about fruit); the second value is -1. aged, old; 2. Toothsome (of wine); third value - mellowed, softened with age (the person); fourth value - soft, juicy, thick (about the voice and paints); fifth-value 1. loose; 2. Fertile, fat (of soil), the sixth value, colloquial - cheerful tipsy (the person). In almost all cases correspond to the word mellow in Russian language, different words, depending on the noun it qualifies. It speaks about a very wide semantic scope of each LSV words. Semantic structure of the word creates the possibility of its contextual use, and transfer of contextual meaning of the word is not an easy problem. The contextual meaning of the word depends on the nature of the semantic context, the semantics of words combined with it. Occasional word meaning, suddenly appearing in a context is not arbitrary - it has the potential inherent in the semantic structure of the word. In the contextual use of the word in poetry or prose often manifested's penetration into the very depths of its semantic structure. After all, the word peculiar as paradigmatic and semantic relations and lexical potency words may be disclosed in both cases. But identifying these potential values closely associated with the originality of the lexical-semantic aspects of each language, and hence the difficulty in transferring the contextual meaning of words in the translation of what is possible in one language, it is impossible in another because of differences in their semantic structure and in their use. In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages. Word hostage, according to the dictionary, has only one meaning - "hostage." However, in this environment is the semantic meaning of the word becomes "victim". This contextual meaning is obviously present in his paradigmatic value: each pawn can become a victim and die, so the translation has to use the word victim, as the word hostage in a contextual meaning is not used. The first victims of nuclear war are women and children. To him, having different volume values in English and Russian concerns a group of words that includes a lot of variety of words: international words, some verbs of perception, sensation and mental activity and the so-called adverbial verbs. The third reason, which causes the need for lexical transformations, is the difference in compatibility. Words are defined for this language ties. Importantly, the compatibility of the words in the case of interoperability concepts designated by them. This compatibility in different languages, obviously, is different, and what is possible in one language is unacceptable in another. Each language has its own typical standards compatibility. Each language can generate an infinite number of new combinations, understandable for people who speak it and do not violate its rules. Each language has a range of conventional, steady-traditional combinations that do not coincide with the corresponding range of combinations in another language, such as, trains run - trains run, rich feeding - abundant food. The air was rich with the scent of the summer flowers (P. Johnson) The air was filled with the scent of summer flowers. Labour Party protests followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain. Message for the deal with Spain Conservative government immediately followed the protest of the Labour Party. The wider the scope of semantic words, the wider its compatibility, since thanks to this it may enter into a variety of communications. This in turn allows the transmission opportunities in the translation, the translations. Of great importance is the usual language for each use of the word (usage).

Reception generalization opposite specificity, since He is to replace private general, species concepts generic. When translating from English into Russian, he used much less frequently than the specification. This is due to the English vocabulary. The words of this language are often more abstract than the Russian words related to the same concept. Here are some examples of generalization: Not ... comes over and visits me practically every weekend.... He often goes to me, almost every week. Not ... showed us this old beat-up Navajo blanket that he and Mrs Spencer'd bought off some Indian ... He showed us ... scruffy Indian blanket - and Mrs. Spencer bought it from some Indian ... Eagle rose up again and began to circle. The bird went up and circled again.

Reception adding lexical. Both lexical and grammatical transformations often require making additional words. The introduction of additional words due to a number of reasons: differences in the structure of the proposal and the fact that a shorter English sentences require a more developed Russian language of expression. The absence of the appropriate word or lexical-semantic variant of this word is also a reason for the introduction of additional words in translation. Here are some examples of literary translation: "Wouldn't you like a cup of hot chocolate before you go?" - He will drink a cup of hot chocolate if the road?... The conductor came around for old Mrs Morrow's ticket, Went ... check ticket conductor Mrs. Morrow. Add in the translation process can be caused by other reasons. One of them is the syntactic structure of the sentence restructuring in translation, during which sometimes required to enter into a sentence or another element. So, when translated into English for the program "communicative division of the sentence" in some cases the English sentence is necessary to introduce the subject, absent in the original Russian proposal: In 1958 he made the first recording. In 1958 that orchestra made its first recordings. In the 30s began preparations for the construction of hydropower stations near Samara. In the 1930's the Soviet Union launched preparations for the building of a hydro-power project near Samara. Nouns-be added to the British proposals, determined by factors broader context. Added to these cases, in principle, could have been avoided, but it would require the use of the passive construction in the translation that is weighted to the English text stylistically. Often necessitates the addition of lexical transfer in the translated text meanings expressed in the original grammatical means. For example, the transmission of English plurals of nouns that do not have this form in the Russian language. Thus, workers of all industries should be translated as workers in all industries. Cf. also: defenses defenses, modern weapons, modern weapons, etc. For example: There are other philosophies of the past which give strong support to the Humanist position. (C. Lament, The Philosophy of Humanism) There are other philosophical trends (or: the flow theory) of the past, which have a strong support for the concept of humanism. Particular difficulty attribute combinations are composed of combinations of "noun + noun" and "adjective + noun". Latter are terminological character. For example: pay claim (pay offer) demand (supply) to raise the salary, wage strike strike demanding higher wages, gun license certificate for the right to bear arms, oil countries country - breeders of oil, etc. The correct choice of semantic component added to the Russian translation requires knowledge of extralinguistic factors. Sometimes adding are caused purely stylistic considerations: She never used scent, and she had always thought it rather fast, but Eau de Cologne was so refreshing. (S. Maugham, Before the Party) She never dushilas, considering it a sign of frivolity known, but cologne - another thing, it's so nice refreshing.

Reception omission. Omission - a phenomenon opposite addendum. When translating the omission exposed often words that are semantically redundant in terms of their semantic content. One example is the redundancy inherent in all styles of writing the English language use of so-called "paired synonyms." Russian language it is absolutely not typical, so the translation in these cases it is necessary to resort to the omission (ie, repetition synonym - two words one replacement). For example: just and equitable treatment fair treatment; brave brave and courageous; regular and normal normal; by force and violence - by force; etc. (14) Of course, the extra elements in the text does not boil down to "pair synonyms." Consider the following example: So I paid my check and all. Then I left the bar and went out where the telephones were. I paid and went to the vending machines. Here in the English text is semantically redundant left the bar, as they referred to the action of the verb implies the following went out; hence the omission in Russian translation (accompanied by combining with the previous proposal). Winter rains in the Jordan are violent, while they last. (K. Kenyon. Digging up Jerico) Winter in the Jordan Valley are terrible showers. In this example, the whole English sentence is excessive in terms of the Russian language. Elimination of semantically redundant elements from the original text gives interpreter to implement what is called "compression of text", ie reduction of the total. Omission is not always caused only by the desire to eliminate the redundancy of speech. It can also have other causes; particularly characteristic of English tendency to maximize specificity, expressed in numerals used, as well as the names of weights and measures, where it is not motivated by semantic factors, sometimes requires resort to lowered (14). For example: About a gallon of water was dripping down my neck, getting all over my collar and tie ... (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 20) Water was pouring from his head by the collar, tie all wet, the whole collar ...

Reception semantic development. Reception semantic development is the replacement of the translation dictionary matching contextual lexically related to it. This includes metaphor and metonymy. If we consider that all of the momentous fall into three categories: objects, processes, and signs, for the transmission of the same content by means of another language object can be replaced by its sign, the process of the subject, a sign of the object or process, etc. Under the process we have in mind an action or state. We can distinguish the following six options: cause investigation process replacement process, its cause, replacement process its consequence, Replacement causes processreplacement of cause and effect, replacement investigation reasonreplacement of the investigation process. For example: Many South African sanctuaries are readily reached from Johannesburg. (Land of Safaries. The New York Times.) To many of South Africa's nature reserves on the doorstep of Iogannensburga. In the translation process (easy to reach - in the literal translation) replaced its cause - the proximity distance. "I don't think she's living here at the moment. Her bed wasn't slept in. "(A. Christie. Third Girl) I think she does not live here now. Her bed had not been slept. Talking morning came into the room and saw that the bed, which she usually cleaned itself, not damp. Instead of a direct translation: she had not slept in his bed marked result. Process has been replaced its consequence. He's dead now. (J. Salinger) He's dead. (He died, therefore, he is now dead.) In this example, the reason for the investigation is replaced

Antonymic translation. Antonomic translation is the replacement of any notion, expressed in the original, opposing notion translated below the corresponding restructuring of the whole utterance to save neizmennog plan content. For example: Stradlater didn't say anything. Stradlater did not say anything. I'm not kidding. I say to you seriously. The first sentence of the English negative construction transmitted Russian affirmative, and the verb say say it is replaced by Russian antonym silent. In the second sentence is replaced as negative for construction and replacement of assertive expressions to be kidding kidding Seriously its antonym. Such double substitution results in a value of the same sentence as a whole. Typical applications antonymic transfer when transferring to the Russian language with Russian design not ... (un) til ...; while (un) til replaced by only only (when), etc., which may in a sense be considered as its antonyms. They gave me the wrong book, and I didn't notice it till I got back to my room. I just noticed at home that I was given the wrong book. I didn't think of it till we went half-way through the park. I remembered this when we drove almost the entire park. We must bear in mind that the denial of the English language is also expressed using the pretext without: Not never met him afterwards without asking him ... (S. Maugham, A Creative Impulse) After that, every time he asked him at a meeting ... (trans. M. Lorie) Antonymic special kind of translation is an adjective or adverb replacement in comparative or superlative adjective (adverb) in a positive power, or vice versa, followed by replacement of assertive design to a negative (or vice versa). I'm the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life. I'm a terrible liar - this you've never seen. It wasn't as cold as it was the day before, Become warmer than yesterday.

Holistic transformation is a kind of semantic development. Reception holistic transformation can be briefly defined as the transformation of a single word, and sometimes the whole sentence. Moreover, the conversion is not on the elements, and holistically. As is the case with respect to other methods of lexical transformations tradition of contacts used a series of holistic transformation frequency of lexical units and consolidated their results as matching vocabulary - constant and variant. Especially a lot of live matches of phrases spoken language. For example: How do you do? HelloNever mind. Nothing, do not worry, do not pay attention. Forget it. Should not talk about it. Shut up! Shut up. Well done! Bravo! Good for you!All these examples show that these conversational compliance have no common semantic components have different internal form and at the same time convey the same content by means of different languages. Specificity colloquially often requires a holistic transformation in translation. Translation combination 'forget it!' In the list above is made using the coupon semantic development: Russian correspondence, of course, is the replacement of the action itself (forget about it) caused it (do not talk about it). More precisely this change should have been defined as taking antonymic translation. However, the lack of common components between the English and Russian phrase matching entitles assume that it is produced by a holistic transformation. The foregoing explains sufficiently why holistic transformation is a universal means of transferring phraseological units. For example: Bird of a feather flock together. Birds of a feather sees from afar. In for a penny in for a pound. Himself as a milk mushroom climb into the back. Shaped replacement shaped expressions through a holistic transformation is undoubtedly an important condition for achieving an adequate translation. Compensation should be considered when translating replacement indescribable element DICE some other means which transmits the same information, not necessarily in the same place in the text, as in the original. Here is an example of compensation in the translation from English into Russian: "Why don't you write a good thrilling detective story?" She asked. "Me?" Exclaimed Mrs Albert Forrester ... (S. Maugham, The Creative Impulse) - And why do not you write a detective novel, such that breathtaking? - What? - Said Mrs. Forrester ... Here in the original Mrs. Forrester uses the elliptical sentence in the form of so-called objective case pronoun me instead of I, what many consider grammatical negligence (incidentally, without good reason, because they form in such cases has long been the norm in colloquial literary language). Since the Russian language in the system of personal pronouns is nothing like that, translator M. Lorie felt it necessary to have recourse to compensation, using a colloquial-familiar forms that instead of that literary, ie replacing the personal pronoun for questioning and thereby transmitting the same information as in the original, although other means. You could tell he was very ashamed of his parents and all, because they said 'he don't' and 'she don't' and stuff like that ... (J. Salinger "The Catcher in the Rye", 18) It was clear that he was ashamed of his parents, because they said "hochut" and "wants," and stuff like that ... As can be seen from the examples, compensation is used most frequently where necessary to convey purely vnutrilingvisticheskie values characterizing certain linguistic features of the original - dialectal coloring, irregularities or individual features of speech, puns, wordplay, etc., as well as when it is not always possible to find direct and immediate compliance with one or another unit in the system FL IL. Techniques and converting the integral compensation clearly illustrate that the equivalence of transfer is not provided at the individual elements of the text (in particular words), but only translated text as a whole. In other words, there are untranslatable particular but no untranslatable text. Any lexical transformations require translator sense of proportion and a thorough knowledge of the translated text associated decor. Thus, the presence of a large number of words in a broad, abstract meanings in the English language, the differences in the meanings of words, conciseness of expression possible in the English language due to the presence of a number of grammatical structures and forms required when translating the introduction of additional words and even sentences. However, some differences in the habitual use (Language Usage) cause the omission of the individual elements of an English sentence with translation into Russian. All this explains the widespread use of lexical transformations in translation.

Speaking or communication - is one of the sides of the interaction of people in their activities. Communication is a specific condition of human life in society. Communication in the psychological sense is always a process of solving communication problems. In the framework of the theory of speaking Communication is the process of circulation of information in society. Communication is the realization of the social character of consciousness. We can recall the words of L. Bloomfield that the "speech act, and the entire course of practical events before and after the speech depends on the entire life history of the speaker and the listener". So, human communication - is a process of interaction between two or more persons for the purpose of language transmission / receiving / exchange of information, i.e. of an impact on the interlocutor necessary for the implementation of joint activities with.

Communication can be successful and unsuccessful. Successful communication - "is adequate communication, which achieves a more or less complete, but not necessarily sufficient, in terms of the communicants, mutual understanding" [1. 173]. In the case of unsuccessful communication there is possible communicative failure (not enough adequate communication, lack of understanding of participants communication) or communicative failure (inadequate communication, a complete misunderstanding of the communicants at each others).

For adequate communication requires a "common knowledge of communicants' certain community social experience and a common fund of knowledge. Psycholinguistics suggests the need to cross zones of individual cognitive spaces of communicants sufficient for adequate communication.

For successful communication partners need to know about the cultural peculiarities of each other, to operate with images of language awareness. In this common linguistic identities are a prerequisite of speech communication. It is the consciousness of language differences or lack of knowledge about the features of linguistic consciousness of other people is the main cause of conflict communication, but is a direct proof of belonging communicating to different national cultures.

In the domestic science ICC had initially linguistic orientation, resulting in a few areas of its reflection and development. So, lingo – country-studying and area studies exploring the issues of interaction of language and culture. Ethno-linguistics focuses on the interaction of language with various aspects of life of the ethnic group, the role of language in the formation and functioning of national culture (folklore), examines the role of language in the formation of national psychology and art. It also investigates the problem of different forms of communication (kommunicavistics, genre-studying): problems of speech communication, the relationship of consciousness and communication (V.V. Krasnyh), communicative behavior (T.G.Vinokur, I.P. Susov), works on the description of communication strategies, non-verbal communication (within psycholinguistics) (I.N. Gorelov, V.I. Karasik) investigated the relationship between translation and intercultural communication. In the field of ICC outlined new areas of research: Communication in the context of globalization of culture, mass ICC, as well as direct and indirect forms of ICC (communication by electronic means and the Internet). However, to highlight the ICC as an independent science is needed systematization of theoretical positions and methodological tools and techniques of research.

Linguistic influence on contact, as inevitable in the translation, and in cross-cultural communication, received the name of linguistic interference [2. 26]. Interference is interference elements of one language system to another by direct contact language, and the result of such intervention can be either negative or put it in a deviation from the rules of the language, as well as a positive, contributing to the quality of the translation and the acquisition of intercultural competence under the influence of another language. Sometimes this effect is known as destructive (negative) interference, significantly reduces the quality of cross-cultural communication and translation. Interest in the phenomenon of interference is growing. There are papers on phonological, phonetic, semantic and lexical interference. Such studies are potentially important for the development of the theory and practice of translation. They will be valuable in cross-cultural communication, against the background of the fact that Russia is growing interest in the acquisition of language skills and tolerance education, changing attitudes to the need to study the cultures and traditions of other nations. Adequate and full translation implies correct, accurate and complete transmission of the content and features of the text, the original source, and that function is maintained in the correct language form the language in which the translation.

Translated into the framework of cross-cultural communication is necessary not only to convey the content is accurate and correct, but also to achieve an adequate cross-cultural contact, which is possible only with the understanding of cultural traditions and cultural color, national characteristics, reflected in form, style, idiom and cultural realities that emerged in the text, the original source (as in the oral and the written translation). Depending on how to understand each other's carriers of different languages and cultures of different areas of life, the future of entire nations. In cross-cultural communication translation has, on the one hand, the main role (if communicants are speaking different languages and use a foreign language and an interpreter as intermediaries), on the other hand, the translation performs a subordinate role, being only a means and a way to achieve exposure and transmission. The underestimation of the interference phenomenon at the level of career-oriented cross-cultural communication and translation found in a variety of errors, accents, translation inaccuracies and distortions of meaning statements, which may even lead to a breakdown of communication. In the framework of intercultural communication translator must know not only the language in which the translation, but also cultural characteristics, traditions, social and personal behaviors, customs of peoples to properly interpret and verbal communication, non-verbal and its support (gestures, facial expressions). The most pressing is the concept of a limit transferability, we're talking about the limits of translatability, when you can not complete the transaction, or in the case untranslatability when "it is impossible to build a functionally relevant characteristics of the situation in contextual meaning of the text to the target language". One can speak of two types of situations, the situation with the complexities of linguistic plan and the situation with the complexities of the cultural plan (untranslatability cultural studies), while translating both written and oral communications. The first related to the transfer of puns, wordplay, caused by homophones or homographs, meaningful words. The latter occurs when a situational feature, functionally relevant for source-language text, is completely absent in the culture, part of which is the language in which the translation.

Comparison with other nations helps each of them to feel their own identity. For example, the British often accused of greed and selfishness, the Germans cause fear for their discipline, organization, diligence and aggressiveness.

In the process of communication between different cultures stereotypical occupy a significant place. Meeting with the representatives of other nations and cultures, a person usually has a natural tendency to perceive their behavior in terms of their culture, "to measure them to your yard." In this case, without the ability to quickly and correctly assessed on the interviewee's difficult to navigate the different social and cultural circles.

In the process of cross-cultural communication, one partner perceives the other, together with his actions and through the actions. The adequacy of the understanding of the actions and their causes depends on building a relationship with another person [5].

In terms of interconnection and interdependence of the modern world of different cultures are not isolated from each other and are in constant contact and interact. Representatives of one culture collide with the features of other cultures through direct contact with carriers of these molecules s tour at home and abroad, or receive relevant information orally or in writing with the screen, in the newspapers, from literary works and other sources. One of these sources is widespread in the world today are translations.

According to H.G. Gadamer, any interpretation is contextual, depending on criteria related to the context of where and when it is carried out and no one will know and understand the text for what he is in himself. When the text of a historical and cultural context falls into another, new intentions linked with it, by a new historical and cultural context. Talented translation must fit into the worldview of the target language, thus reflecting the peculiarities of perception of the world of the original language, serve as a bridge between different cultures. We know that many local languages and culture were influenced by the translations.

The socio-cultural impact on the strategy of the translator, according to V.N.Komissarov, often reflected in the fullness of play in the translation of the content of the original, forcing the translator to reduce or completely omit anything in the host culture is considered unacceptable by the ideologue and the ethical, moral or aesthetic reasons

Various forms of cultural determinism translation activities are a kind of conventional norm of translation - a set of requirements for the company to translation at a certain stage of history.

The system of functional styles is in a state of continuous development. Styles by themselves are separated in varying degrees: the boundaries of some of them are not easy to define, and it is difficult to separate such styles from the genres. These difficulties are especially evident when it comes to journalistic style.

Journalistic style of speech is a functional variant of the literary language and is widely applied in various areas of public life: newspapers, magazines, television and radio, in public political speeches, in the activities of political parties and public associations. This also should add political literature for the general reader and documentaries.

In various books in style journalistic style was known as newspaper and journalistic, newspaper style, socio-political style. The name "journalistic style" is more accurate because different versions of the name more narrowly define the scope of its operation. The name "newspaper style" explains the history of the formation of this style: his speech features is crystallized in the print media, and above all in the papers. Today, however, this style of functioning not only in print but also in electronic media: it would also be fair to call "television" style. Another name - social and political style - or rather indicates a close relationship with the style of discussion of social and political life, but it is worth remembering that this style of serving and non-political sphere of communication: culture, sports, activities of non-governmental organizations (environmental, human rights, etc.).

According to A. Vasilyeva journalism - it's kind of literature and journalism, where the topical political, economic, literary, legal, philosophical, and other problems of modern life in order to influence public opinion and the existing political institutions, strengthen or change them according to a certain class interest (in class society), or social and moral ideal. As a subject of journalism A.N. Vasilyeva allocates all of modern life in its greatness and smallness, private and public, real or reflected in the media, arts, paper [13: 147].

I.V. Arnold believes that journalistic style are works dealing with current problems and current phenomena of social life, as well as playing an important political and ideological role, affecting the social institutions and serves as a means of public education, agitation and propaganda, a way to organize and transfer of social information [14: 75].

Summarizing the above definition can identify the basic functional load journalistic style. The most important information is presented and the impact of the function.

Information function of texts relating to this style of speech, is that the authors of these texts are intended to inform the widest possible range of readers, viewers, listeners of societal problems and the views of the authors of these problems.

Information function is inherent in all styles of speech. The specificity of the information function in a journalistic style is the nature of the information, its source and destination. Television broadcasts, newspaper and magazine articles to inform the public about a variety of aspects of his life: the parliamentary debate on the economic programs of the government and the parties of accidents and crimes, about the environment, about the daily life of citizens.

The information in nonfiction texts not only describes the facts, but reflect the opinions, attitudes, provides commentary and reflections authors. This differs from scientific information. Another difference is due to the fact that in front of nonfiction does not intend to complete, comprehensive description of a phenomenon. Writer seeks to write, first of all, that is of interest in certain social groups, highlighting those aspects of life that are important for its potential audience.

Informing the public about the situation in areas of public interest has, in the journalistic texts implementing the second most important function of this style - a function of exposure. The purpose of the publicist is not only to talk about the situation in the society, but also to convince the audience of the need for a position on the statement of the facts and of the need for a certain behavior. Journalistic style bias inherent in an open, polemical, emotional, and that just motivated by the desire to prove the correctness of his publicist position.

The function is the impact to the system-journalistic style, that it highlights the style of other varieties of language. While this feature is also typical for formal business and conversational style, the selection of language means she is an active influence in nonfiction texts.

Consider as an example the implementation of these functions a note from the newspaper "the District" [46: 4] under the name ""Prince Vladimir" refers to the province." Article is subtitled "City officials support the Swedish producers." It informs about the purchase of the Moscow city government and city council Swedish cars "Volvo". At the same time, the memo affects the reader to form a definite relation to the position of the leaders, in words lobbying for support of domestic producers.

In addition to the information and acting, texts journalistic style, of course, and perform all other functions inherent in the language:

- Communicative;

- Expressive;

- Aesthetic.

Communicative function is the main function of language and manifests itself in all its forms. As journalistic style functions in the sphere of relations between different social groups, the role of style in support of public communication is enormous. Communicative journalistic style is that his lyrics are not for internal use only and not for a single destination (although in these cases the communicative aspect of the present), and for the widest possible audience. Being at a distance in space, the author of journalistic text aims to approach the destination on time, on the subject of messages, as well as voice, stylistic features. Communication implies and feedback - the target response. For this style of feedback is most clearly is in a situation of public debate, but not only. Newspapers feedback are letters from readers, the responses of officials, articles, send them in response to a previous publication. Radio and television have moved from letters to phone calls listeners and viewers, during which they can ask questions, express their opinions, tell them about famous events. It is widely used to attract viewers to shoot a television studio. Modern interactive TV is looking for new ways to maintain contact with the audience. Today the Internet is definitely the best source of information. It serves as the basis for the development of the information society by means of various programs such as skype, ICQ, or on-line trainings, forums, the inverse relationship.

The expressive function of language allows the speaker to express his feelings. Journalistic text is usually clearly reflects the author's personality is different express and emotionally charged attitude of the author to present the facts. Not all journalistic genres equally suggest expressiveness of the text: it is less likely for informational notes, and more typical of the essay or pamphlet. On television, emotionality less common for news outlets, and is required for a talk show.

Here are a few examples of expressive headlines: "Old wagon in a new way. Moscow does not say goodbye to Czech trams "," Secret census. Mosgorkomstat promises not to share information, "" Mushroom wrong once, "" True road you are traveling companion! Three hours of socialism in the three stations "[19: 189]. These headers are not simply representing a subject, but emotionally characterize the situation, which tells the note.

The aesthetic function of journalistic text is set by the author, but the message in the form of its unity with the contents satisfies the aesthetic feelings of the recipient.

Genres and types of journalistic style

Journalistic style of functioning of certain stable forms is genres. Traditionally journalistic genres are divided into:

newspaper (essay, article, satire, reportage);

oratory (debates, speeches at the rally, toast);

television (analytical program, the dialogue in the air);

advertising (ad, poster, slogan);

communication (press conference, teleconference).

A more detailed look at newspaper genre.

Different style characteristics of the individual newspaper genres related to their purpose (note newsreel, reportage, interviews, essays, travel notes, correspondence). They pursue primarily informative purposes (except for essays), and the reception of the material closer together with the documents.

Style close to the research reported in several newspaper articles, and genres such as essays, satires are a kind of "hybrids" that combine the features of journalistic and literary - artistic style.

Newsreel note - is a brief account of the fact.

Report - a genre of journalism, to report promptly to the press, radio, TV about an event, a witness or participant is a reporter.

Interview - a genre of journalism, journalist conversation with one or more other persons for any conceptual issues.

Correspondence - operative genre of journalism that reports on the specific facts and circumstances.

Essay - a type of story, which outlines and analyzes the various facts and phenomena of social life, usually accompanied by a direct interpretation of their authors. Essay generally occupies a special place in the political literature.

Travel Notes - kind of essay that describes the movement in space and time.

Is the closest to finding people on the value of conformity in the translated language for lexical unit, without having to exact matches. This kind of approximate equivalents of lexical units can be called "peers."

Although these equivalents are only approximate broadcast the contents of the corresponding Russian words, yet in the absence of a precise English equivalents, their use is justified because they give some idea of the nature referred to an object or phenomenon. The use of analogs also found in the transmission non-equivalent English vocabulary in Russian language, for example:

drugstore - pharmacy, knowhow - secrets (technology, skills, knowledge of the case), muffin - baking.

Applying the translation process "analogues", keep in mind that they are only about convey the value of the original word, and in some cases may not create quite a correct idea of the nature referred to their object or phenomenon. With this in mind, experienced translators using "unique" give the required explanations in comments translated.

This technique is similar in its principle to approximate translation and contrasted vocabulary, as translated word by using this technique can have a match other than those specified in the dictionary. In this case, the main orientation of the interpreter is the context, therefore it is a way "is to replace the vocabulary compliance with contextual translation is logically connected to it." An illustration of such a method can serve as a translation of the phrase "Sorry, but we can not apply to you or consomme or profiteroles or floransi. We do not have Italian food, "the statement« I'm sorry, but we don't have the dishes you have ordered ». The main disadvantage of such a transfer is complete disappearance of the realities of the media as a specific national color.

In some cases, transmission non-equivalent vocabulary translator has to resort to the restructuring of the syntactic structure of the sentences to the full lexical substitutions changing the value of the original word or to one and the other at the same time, that is, to what is called the lexical and grammatical translational transformations, so in this If you can talk about the transformational translation.

For example, the English glimpse, having no equivalents of Russian nouns, often used in expressions to have, or to catch a glimpse of something or somebody, which makes it possible to use the verb in the translation, and thus resort to syntactic restructuring proposals [2, c. 201-214].

I could catch glimpses of him in the windows of the sitting-room.

When using transformation receive this offer translation from English into Russian as follows:

Я видел, как его фигура мелькнула в окнах гостиной.

Hyponymyic translation is the replacement of species concepts in a generic, that is, the transfer of the realities of a linguistic unit, which has a broader meaning than translatable. At its core is a generalization of the reception, which was quite widely used. It eliminates the transcription and substitution of concepts, the difference between them in a given context is negligible. For example: нопаль (вид кактуса) – кактус, кебраго (вид дерева) – дерево.

This method of transmitting bezekvivalentnoy vocabulary is the realization of the value of a lexical unit deployed using phrases that reveal the essential features of the lexical unit designated by the phenomenon, that is, in fact, by its definition (definition). Here are a few examples of descriptive translation of the English lexicon bezekvivalentnoy into Russian: showmanship - the ability to draw attention to themselves, gum arabic, gum arabic, emitted by different types of acacia trees, native to the south of the Sahara.

Translation idioms containing realities. Some researchers (eg, Vlahov and Florin) also highlight the realities of the replacement trick given in the source, on the reality of language. However, it should be noted that such a change leads to a kind of substitution of color and a sharp separation realities on the background of the text. An example of such a change can serve as a transfer of English. "Iomen" Russian concept of "land." The only clear prerequisite of such replacements is the loss of color (to the extent that this is possible) or translate the word or his alleged replacement.

The change of color by substituting the reality can focus the reader's attention to detail, which may, in my opinion, is not a key, and does not pose any significant semantic value to the story. bellboy-captain.

Considering the phraseological units in terms of translation, we turn to the division proposed by V.S.Vinogradovym, which identifies the following groups collocations:

1. lexical, semantic correlate with the words;
2. predicate complete sentences, entrenched in the language in the form of stable formulas;
3. comparative, entrenched in the language of a robust comparison.

S.Vlahov and S.Florin combine idioms in their structural and semantic type, color, metaphor, stylistic coloring of the following groups:

1) shaped / non-shaped;

2) proverbs like / non-proverb type;

3) National / loan / international;

4) having the flavor / without coloring;

5) Common / author;

6) the primitives / authorized.

The above indicators are to a large extent determine how the translation of phraseological unit.

Based on the basic principles of classification realities words, you can highlight the main ways of translating the realities of phraseology.

1) Using the absolute equivalent.

This technique is possible if the idioms in the source language and the target language contains international reais (its one of a pair of foreign languages or for both): "All roads lead to Rome» «All roads lead to Rome». «The Dutch have taken Holland!» «Discover America!"

2) Use the equivalent of a maximum close-up content. This method is limited in application, since it implies change the realities of the source language reality of language. Such a transfer is possible in cases where a national or temporary color does not play a role, and the most important element is the content of the plan. The most famous example is the translation of the Russian proverb "To go to Tula with the samovar," the English equivalent «To carry coal to Newcastle».

3) Use a neutral color one word or phrase. It is used when there is no equivalent in the target language, or in the case where the substitution of color will lead to a distortion of meaning or a sharp discrepancy between the text itself idiom. An illustration of this process can serve as a translation of the English expression «when Queen Anne was alive» (literally, "was alive when Queen Anne") neutral Russian phrase "in ancient times." This method may be limited by the author's intention, if the expression is used in the literal sense and is an indication of a certain historical period ("at the court of Queen Anne") [34. 233-235].

4) Word Translation with explanation in a footnote may be used to preserve and flavor phraseological realities simultaneously for transmission of the content. This technique is successful, as it helps to achieve the main goal in the translation of such a linguistic unit, but has the disadvantage because of the literal translation of which cannot be natural.

5) Bringing the idiom in the original language with the translation and explanation in a footnote. This method is used relatively infrequently, mainly in cases similar to those used in the preceding process description. This technique increases the flavor of the speech of the hero or the author, and, in accordance with the author's intent, knowledge points to the hero of a foreign language (this applies to the phrases in the text in a foreign language for the original).

6) Use have a trcing the replacement of the national component is to build on the basis of the available material in the original language to the new language translation of phraseological unit. In this way, in the Russian language was included saying "Moscow was not built in one day" (English «Rome was not built in a day»). Also example is the translation of the Russian proverb "penny penny gained" with the phrase «take care of the kopecks and the roubles will take care of themselves» on the basis of the English expression «take car of the pennies and the pounds will take care of themselves».

3. Post translational analysis of the text

 

The final stage of our work is analysis involves a thorough study of the results of translation. At this stage, the translator Mr. Parts Required to describe solutions that have helped him to create a semantic, structural and stylistic analogue original. analysis involves consideration of lexical, grammatical and lexical to grammatical transformations.

 

3.1 Lost in Translation book A. Chan "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II "

 

This section is devoted to the review and analysis of translation solutions that are needed to create high-quality translation in Russian.

Conversion, with which you can make the transition from original units to units of translation in this sense are called translation (interlanguage) transformations. Since translation transformation carried out with linguistic units, having the plan content and the plane of expression, they are formal semantic nature, transforming both the form and the value of the initial units.

Within the description of the process of transformation Translation not considered in static terms as a means of analysis of the relationship between the units and their DICE dictionary matching, and dynamic in terms of both methods of translation, which can use a translator to translate various originals in cases where compliance with the dictionary is missing or can be used on the context terms. Depending on the nature of DICE units, which are regarded as the source to perform the conversion, translation transformation are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexical-grammatical transformations, where the transformation or affect both lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are inter-layer, ie make the transition from lexical to grammatical unity q and vice versa. [Kazakova 20 00 209]

Currently there are many different classifications of translational transformations, but we'll stick to the traditional division of the above, with which all oglasno translation transformation is divided into three main groups:

1. Lexical
2. Grammatical
3. Lexical and grammatical

Each separate group of transformations includes a number of translation techniques. It is the use of these techniques in practice allows the interpreter to create high-quality text to the target language.

During the translation of the text of the test were used most known x x Translation transformations. In the following sections of this paper we give a detailed analysis of each application changes, accompanied by relevant examples, illustrations.

 

3.2 Lexical transformation

 

Lexical transformation reflect formal and meaningful relationships between words and phrases in the original and in translation. When lexical transformations are replaced individual lexical units of the source language lexical units of the target language are not their lexical equivalents .

Formal lexical transformations include translation techniques, such as:

• transcription
• transliteration
• tracing

Transcription and transliteration - it means the translation of lexical units by recreating its original form using the letters IL. When transcription reproduces the sound form the foreign word and transliteration its graphical shape (alpha composition). The main way to transfer transcription is preserving some elements of transliteration. Since phonetic and graphic systems languages have significant differences, transfer forms of the word in the target language DICE always somewhat arbitrary and approximate.

Tracing - a way to transfer the original lexical unit by replacing its component parts - morphemes or words (in the case of collocations) their lexical correspondences in PCOS. When tracing new e words or word combinations of e in the IL generated by analogy with the structures of the second original lexical unit. It should be noted that in the process of transcription and translation tracing is often used simultaneously.

Following the groups and lexical transformations contains substantial transformation.

Implied here with the manual translation of lexical units of the original use of which is associated with a modification of the values of lexical units. The main methods of this group are

• concrete definition
• generalization
• modulation

Fleshing it is understood by replacing the word DICE on a narrower meaningfully word in PCOS.

Application reception specifying rationally in two main cases:

1) If DICE word with a total value may correspond to a few words with more data points in the IL.

2) If the use of the translation of the same general words, as in the original, may be unacceptable for the situation described.

Reception generalization involves the replacement unit DICE having a narrower meaning, IL unit with a wider meaning. T he application of this technique can be forced as if there is no necessary PYA word with a specific value, and optional if the translator prefers a more general version for stylistic reasons

Modulation or semantic development is called the replacement word or phrase DICE unit PYA whose value is logically inferred from the value of the original unit. Most often values correlated segments of source and target are associated with cause-and-effect relationships. In this case, the rejection of the "direct" translation can be forced or influenced by the choice of an interpreter.

third group consists of additional transformation:

• descriptive translation (explication)
• pens odchesky comment (footnotes and remarks)
• emfatizatsiya / neutralization

When none of the lexical selection methods of compliance is not adequate, the translators have resorted to the description. Descriptive translation can be used in parallel with transcription and is commonly used when translating terms, realities, unique objects, etc.

Whereas explication as translational reception usually accompanies the word or used in the text instead, then the translation comment will normally be taken beyond the text to a footnote on the same page, or provided at the end of the text or as a note book. Comments welcome as the translation is more detailed than the description explaining what is meant by a particular word.

Emphatization or neutralization of the initial value determined by such sociolinguistic factors such as difference in the tradition of emotionally evaluative information, resulting in the translation requires additional or emotional isolation, or vice versa, muting of the word in this context.

In addition, you can separately identify these types of lexical transformations as:

• Compensation
• Approximate transfer / translation by analogy
• Functional replacement

Receiving compensation is to transfer the semantic meaning or stylistic nuances, not where it is expressed in the original, or the means, what it is expressed in the original. If the interpreter is forced to sacrifice or stylistic coloring or expressive charge when translating words, of course, he must first save the expressive meaning of a word or phrase, and in failing to find a match, to compensate for this loss compensation technique.

As for approximate translation or a translation by analogy, then The path of this method is that instead of foreign realities translator uses reality of PCOS, which (by definition) has its own national characteristics, but at the same time has a lot to do with the reality of DICE. [45. 151]

Functional replacement - it's not so much a translation of the original form itself, as its grammatical or semantic features in the text. This transformation is the most time taking fifth in the translation of the predicate. In addition, the functional correspondence search can also be appropriate when translating bezekvivalentnoy vocabulary.

Translation transcription and transliteration

We know that such transformation as translation transcription and transliteration are most often used for the transmission of proper names, different names and bezekvivalentnoy vocabulary. We analyzed the text is devoted to military subjects, and belongs to the artistic-journalistic style, which implies the high frequency of use of proper names, which should be via transcription or transliteration.

Give specific examples of the use of m transcription in translating the test text:

• Blitzkrieg [bltskri]- блицкриг
• Tientsin [tentsn]- Тяньцзинь
• Delhi [deli] – Дели
• Dresden [drezdn] – Дрезден
• Iwane Matsui [iwane matsui]- Иванэ Мацуи

It features the use of transcription in the text include the following example as a rendition of John Rabe. According to the rules of English reading, we must translate the name of this person as John Rabe, one has to take into account the fact that this man was a German, and therefore, according to the rules read German, his name would sound like John Rabe and this option will be appropriately in this situation.

The following words from the text exemplify the use of transliteration:

• Mussolini [ musolini]- Муссолини
• Chahar [taha:] – Чахар
• Hirohito [hrohit]- Хирохито

Here you need to pay attention to the fact that the transliteration of the translation of the text is used much less frequently than transcription.

However, perhaps the most common mode of transmission of names is a melting pot of transcription and transliteration.

• Pearl Harbor [pl hb] - Перл-Харбор
• Manchuria[mntri]- Маньчжурия
• Manchukuo [mntkqu]- Маньчжоу-го
• Hopeh [hOupei] – Хэбэй
• Peking [pik]- Пекин
• Shanghai [ha]- Шанхай
• Nanking [nnk] – Нанкин

It is important to note that the transfer of personal names and place names translator is extremely important to use a dictionary and additional literature, since such a high probability of the existence of the vocabulary established in the Russian language equivalents. As noted by T. R. Levitsky and A. M. Fiterman "Any translator must study the literature, history and culture of other nations, and especially the people of the country from which he translates the language. He must know the life, habits of the people, ie, must be familiar with the so-called realities. Under the realities of life to understand the characteristics, life and polity of each country, its traditions, customs and beliefs - all that makes it distinctive, national identity. Ignorance of reality leads to errors in translation or discolor transfer, depriving it of national color. It can also lead to serious errors, creating a false impression of the country and its people. " [T. R. Levitsky and A. M. Fiterman 1963:6]

Tracing

Tracing the essence is to create a new word or a combination of sustainable IL, copying the original structure of the lexical unit.

Using this translation transformation can be illustrated by the following examples from the text:

• «Japan bashing»- «выволочка Японии»
• «The transfer of oppression»- «отражение угнетения»
• Imperial force- империалистическая сила

Unlike transcription and transliteration tracing is a more complex process than just a mechanical replacement of one form of another. When tracing the translator often have to make additional modifications, such as changing the number of words in the phrase, coordinate words in number and case, to make changes at the morphological level, etc.

 

Concrete definition

In most cases, when translated into Russian language specification are subject to English verbs of speech, as well as verbs of motion

• I first learned about the Rape of Nanking when I was a little girl. –

Впервые я услышала о резне в Нанкине, когда была еще ребенком.

• The stories came from my parents, who had survived years of war and revolution before finding a serene home as professors in a midwestern American college town. –

Историю этих событий мне рассказали мои родители, которые до того, как обрели безмятежную жизнь профессоров в студенческом городке средне-западной Америки, прошли через войну и революцию.

• Many soldiers went beyond rape to disembowel women, slice off their breasts, nail them alive to walls.-

Многие солдаты не ограничивались изнасилованием и вспарывали женщинам живот, отрезали грудь, живыми прибивали гвоздями к стене.

• In addition, most Japanese veterans who participated in the Rape of Nanking are for the most part unwilling to give interviews about their experiences, although in recent years a few have braved ostracism and even death threats to go public with their stories.-

К тому же, большинство ветеранов нанкинской резни не хотят говорить о случившемся, хотя за последние годы некоторые из них все же решились поделиться своими историями, несмотря на угрозы изгнания и физической расправы.

• Later he would say of the invasion of China: The struggle between Japan and China was always a fight between brothers within the "Asian Family."-

Позднее он прокомментирует вторжение Японии в Китай следующим образом: «Борьба между Японией и Китаем, всегда была ссорой братьев внутри «азиатской семьи»

Contextual, or verbal specification applies when you want to complete the sentence, when it is necessary to avoid repetition, to achieve greater expressiveness, ie in situations where changes are dictated purely stylistic considerations:

• Sixty years later, the ghosts of Nanking still haunt Chinese-Japanese relations.-

Минуло 60 лет, а призрак нанкинской трагедии все еще преследует китайско-японские отношения.

 

Generalization

Generalization is used in the Russian translation significantly less than specification. When translating, we used generalization to not overload the text realities that may be unfamiliar to Russian readers. For example:

• The international response to the Nanking atrocities was eerily akin to the more recent response to the atrocities in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Rwanda: while thousands have died almost unbelievably cruel deaths, the entire world has watched CNN and wrung its hands.

Реакция международного сообщества на геноцид в Нанкине была удивительно похожа на недавнюю реакцию на кровавые события в Боснии-Герцеговине и Руанде: пока тысячи людей умирали немыслимо жестокой смертью, весь мир, сжимая кулаки, смотрел новости по телевизору.

• The American South is a better place for its acknowledgment of the evil of slavery and the one hundred years of Jim Crowism that followed emancipation.-

Юг Америки стал лучше, потому что американцы признали все ужасы рабства и притеснений чернокожего населения, которые продолжались еще сто лет после отмены самого рабства.

• While there was no Japanese equivalent of a "final solution" for the Chinese people, the imperial government endorsed policies that would wipe out everyone in certain regions in China.-

До начала японского аналога Холокоста в Китае, правительство императора выбрало политику по полному уничтожению населения в некоторых регионах Китая.

Мы знаем, что в английском языке при описании часто используются однородные, иногда даже синонимичные, определения, что намного реже встречается в русском языке. Поэтому в следующем примере уместно применение генерализации:

• One of the deadliest was the "Three-all" policy ("Loot all, kill all, burn all") in northern China, where Communist Chinese guerrillas had fought the Japanese furiously and effectively.-

Одной из самых смертоносных стала политика «трех дочиста» («выжигай дочиста», «убивай всех дочиста», «грабь дочиста»), которая применялась на севере Китая, где китайские коммунистические партизаны самоотверженно боролись с японской армией.

 

Modulation

Modulation, or semantic development, often applied e ed with text translations, as this technique helps to keep the style of the text and stick in translation of Russian Language Usage:

• Here as well as elsewhere during the war, entire cities and regions were targeted for disease.-

Во время войны в этих и других районах страны болезни намеренно распространялись на целые города и регионы.

• That is still the case in China, where several generations have now been taught of Japan's crimes and of its failure, to this day, to atone for them.-

Антияпонские настроения и поныне существуют в Китае, где из поколения в поколение в школах рассказывают о совершенных преступлениях, которые Япония до сих пор никак не компенсировала.

• It is just the same as in a family when an elder brother has taken all that he can stand from his ill-behaved younger brother and has to chastise him in order to make him behave properly.-

Это как в семье, когда старший брат уже не в силах терпеть поведение непутевого младшего брата, он выпорет его, чтобы научить хорошим манерам.

 

Descriptive translation (explication)

Descriptive ("explanatory") translation is the realization of a lexical unit values DICE deployed using phrases that reveal the essential features referred to this phenomenon lexical unit, that is, in fact, using its definition (definition) on IL. [35:99]

Demonstrate the use of this transforrmatsii by the following examples from the text:

• …about a rape-and-murder case in tenth-century Kyoto.-

Действие происходит в десятом веке в городе Киото, где идет судебное разбирательство по делу об убийстве и изнасиловании.

• Europeans date it from September 1, 1939, and the blitzkrieg assault on Poland by Hitler's Luftwaffe and Panzer divisions.-

Европейцы датируют начало войны первым сентября 1939г, когда Гитлер начал операцию «блицкриг», и немецкие ВВС и бронированные войска нанесли удар по Польше.

It should be noted that it is possible to avoid using this transformation, as the final translation can be too cumbersome and wordy.

 

Translation commentary (footnotes and remarks)

When translating text we met two cases requiring the use of translation commentary Tarija:

• Differences in degree, however, often reflect differences in kind, and so a few statistics must be used to give the reader an idea of the scale of the massacre that took place sixty years ago in a city named Nanking.-

Однако количественные изменения часто отражают качественные, так что совсем немного статистики будет достаточно, чтобы читатель смог представить масштабы кровавой расправы, которая произошла шестьдесят лет назад в городе под названием Нанкин.

• Some of it was retaliatory and directed against Chinese villages suspected of helping American fliers during the April 1942 Doolittle raid of Tokyo.-Некоторые из этих экспериментов носили карательный характер и были направлены против жителей китайских деревень, которые подозревались в помощи американским летчикам во время Рейда Дулиттла в Токио в апреле 1942г.

In the first case, reference is needed in order to avoid confusion chronological. In the second case the translation commentary helps Russian-speaking readers to obtain information about a little-known historical event.

 

Emfatizatsiya / neutralization

In view of the fact that the authors of the English journalistic texts avoid book vocabulary and phrases, preferring lexical items and expressions inherent in colloquial speech, and, moreover, in English journalistic style, emphasis on sensory perception [Breus EV 2002: 27,38] in the translation process, we often had to resort to re vodcheskomu receive neutralization:

• If one event can be held up as an example of the unmitigated evil lying just below the surface of unbridled military adventurism, that moment is the Rape of Nanking.-

Если какое преступление и может стать показательным примером абсолютного зла, которое порождается неконтролируемыми военными нарушениями, то это – резня в Нанкине, а эта книга – история тех дней.

• Using numbers killed alone, the Rape of Nanking surpasses much of the worst barbarism of the ages. –

Если рассматривать только число убитых людей, резня в Нанкине уже превосходит большинство самых ужасных преступлений в истории.

• The Rape of Nanking should be remembered not only for the number of people slaughtered but for the cruel manner in which many met their deaths. –

Мы должны помнить о нанкинской трагедии не только из-за числа жертв, но и потому, что эти люди были убиты самым безжалостным образом.

However, the translation of the text, we also resorted to using emfatizatsii:

• For Chinese forces, whose heroic defense of Shanghai had finally failed, and whose best troops had suffered crippling casualties, the fall of Nanking was a bitter, perhaps fatal defeat.-

Для китайских войск, которые героически держали оборону Шанхая, но впоследствии сдали позиции и понесли при этом огромные потери, падение Нанкина стало трагическим, возможно даже фатальным поражением.

• When it comes to expressing remorse for its own wartime actions before the bar of world opinion, Japan remains to this day a renegade nation. –

Япония прячет голову в песок, когда дело доходит до необходимости признать вину за свои военные действия.

Compensation

Usually used to transfer compensation jargon, puns, or to reflect the style of the text. We used receiving compensation for the transfer lines from the poem, which ends the preface.

• And maps can really point to places

Where life is evil now-

Флажки на карте приведут в места, Где Зло потешилось на славу

In order to reflect the poetic s poem, translated and introduced a new way of using the impersonated e for transfer and expression to achieve the necessary emotional and aesthetic effect.  

 

Approximate translation / translated by analogy

This trick is to seek out the nearest value to match in the PJA for DICE lexical unit, which has no exact match in the IL. This transformation is used rarely and mainly for re cottages bezekvivalentnoy vocabulary. [Barkhudarov 1975: 101] In the text to be translated, we applied a translation by analogy only in one case:

• One person will call 911, and another will race down the street to alert a police officer on his or her beat. Someone else will take off his coat, fold it, and place it under your head, so that if these are indeed your last moments of life you will die in the small but real comfort of knowing that someone cared about you. –

Кто-то вызовет скорую, кто-то побежит за полицией, а кто-то снимет пальто, свернет его и положит вам под голову, чтобы, если вы действительно умираете, вы знали, что кто-то о вас заботиться.

 

Functional replacement

The most common variant of a functional change is the replacement of the verbal predicate name - and vice versa. should be noted that many perevodovedy attributed this transformation to the lexical and grammatical Translation at Emam. We illustrate the use of this transformation examples from the text:

• The broad details of the Rape are, except among the Japanese, not in dispute.-

Ключевые моменты этого геноцида сомнению не подвергаются, разве что со стороны японцев.

• For instance, no photograph on the event, not even one word, appears in The American Heritage Picture History of World War II (1966), which for many years was the best-selling single-volume pictorial history of the war ever published.-

К примеру, в книге «Наследие Америки. Вторая мировая война в фотографиях»(1966г), которая долгое время считалась лучшим иллюстрированным однотомником по истории войны, нет ни одного слова и ни одной фотографии, которые были бы посвящены тем событиям.

• Soon I was on the phone talking to not just one but two producers of documentaries on the subject. The first was Shao Tzuping, a Chinese-American activist who had worked for the United Nations in New York, served as a past president of the Alliance in Memory of Victims of the Nanjing Massacre, and helped produce die videotape Magee's Testament.-

Это событие заново пробудило во мне интерес, и вскоре я уже вела телефонные переговоры, причем не с одним, а с двумя продюсерами документальных фильмов о Нанкине. Первого звали Шао Цупинг- американский активист китайского происхождения, который раньше работал в ООН в Нью-Йорке. Он был экс-президентом Общества памяти жертв нанкинской резни, а также принимал участие в работе над фильмом «Показания Маги».

 

3.3 Grammatical transformations

 

Kazakova TA identifies the following main types of grammatical transformations: syntactic likeness (literal translation), the division offers, the association offers, grammatical change (word forms, parts of speech, or of the sentence).

A.M.Fiterman T.R.Levitskaya and grammatical transformations relate to the following methods: permutation, omissions and additions, adjustment and replacement offers.

Ya.I.Retsker says that grammatical transformations can act as a replacement of parts of speech, or of the sentence.

VN Commissioners allocates as grammatical transformations literal translation (or syntactic assimilation), grammatical replacement (replacement of the sentence, word forms, parts of speech) and division sentences.

In this paper we will try to cover those grammatical transformations, which are allocated by the majority of linguists, namely grammatical replacement permutation syntactic assimilation, integration and articulation of proposals.

Grammatical replacement

This kind of transfer cal transformation is the most common and diverse.

Grammatical replacement - this method of translation, in which a grammatical unit in the original unit is converted into IL with other grammatical meaning. Replacement can be subjected to a grammatical unit may DICE any level: word form, part of speech, members of Mr. offering, an offer of a definite type. It is clear that the translation always takes place on the replacement forms DICE form IL. Grammatical replacement as a special way to transfer involves not just the use of translated forms IL, and avoiding the use of forms of IL analogous logical source, such a replacement for other forms of differing schiesya from them in expressing the content (grammatical meaning). [Komissarov 1990: 219]

In this paper we consider the following substitutions:

• Replacing Word Forms
• Replacement of parts of speech
• Replacement of the sentence

And also the following syntactic substitutions in a complex sentence:

• Replacing simple sentence complex / simple complex sentence
• Replacing a subordinate clause main / subordinate chief
• Replacing submission writing / essay submission
• Replacing union type connection asyndetic / conjunctionless communication type union

a) Replacing the word form:

• The Rape of Nanking was only one incident in a long saga of Japanese barbarism during nine years of war.-

Резня в Нанкине - это лишь один из эпизодов из долгой и кровожадной саги, продолжавшейся в течение девяти лет войны.

(замена единственного числа множественным)

• Before the great massacre, Japan had already earned notoriety as the first country in Asia to break the taboo and use airpower not only as a battlefield weapon but as a means of terrorizing civilian populations.-

Еще до событий в Нанкине, Япония заработала себе дурную славу, когда стала первой нацией, которая нарушила табу и с помощью ВВС начала не только убивать вражеских солдат, но и терроризировать мирное население. (замена множественного числа единственным)

• When a local Christian priest asked him, "Who is greater, God or the emperor of Japan?," he had no doubt that "the emperor" was the correct answer.-

Когда один христианский священник спросил его: «Чье величие больше: Бога или японского императора?», бывший японский солдат не сомневался, что «величие императора» это единственный правильный ответ.

(Replacement form past time form this time)

b) Replacement of parts of speech

• Imbuing violence with holy meaning, the Japanese imperial army made violence a cultural imperative every bit as powerful as that which propelled Europeans during the Crusades and the Spanish Inquisition-

Наделив насилие сакральным смыслом, японская императорская армия превратила его в движущую силу культуры, по мощи сравнимую с той, что толкала вперед европейцев во время крестовых походов и испанской инквизиции. (в данном примере мы видим три случая замены части речи: сначала существительное violence заменяется притяжательным местоимением его, затем прилагательное cultural заменяется существительным культура, а прилагательное powerful заменяется существительным мощь)

• This attitude echoes that of the Japanese teachers and officers who beat their students and soldiers senseless while insisting, between blows, that it was all done for their own good.-

Подобное убеждение это отголосок поведения японских учителей и военных, которые нещадно били своих учеников и солдат, между тем повторяя, что они делают это им во благо. (здесь мы видим замену глагола echoes существительным отголосок)

• This book is not intended as a commentary on the Japanese character or on the genetic makeup of a people who would commit such acts.-

Эта книга писалась не для того, чтобы объяснить японский менталитет или доказать генетическую предрасположенность этой нации к такого рода действиям. (в данном примере мы видим замену существительного commentary глаголом объяснить)

c) Replacement of the sentence.

When translating English sentences are often observed to be a replacement or predicate.

• What is still stunning is that it was public rampage, evidently designed to terrorize.-

Поразительно то, что эти преступления никак не скрывались, очевидно, с целью террора.

• Perhaps it was General Matsui Iwane who summed up the prevailing mentality of self-delusion best when he attempted to justify Japanese oppression of China, Before he left for Shanghai in 1937, he told his supporters: "I am going to the front not to fight an enemy but in the state of mind of one who sets out to pacify his brother"-

Идею самообмана, которая стала частью японского менталитета, пожалуй, лучше всех резюмировал генерал Мацуи Иванэ при попытке оправдать угнетение китайцев японцами. Перед тем как в 1937 году генерал покинет Шанхай, он скажет своим сторонникам: «Я иду на войну не для того, чтобы сражаться с врагом, а чтобы усмирить наших братьев ».

• The stories came from my parents, who had survived years of war and revolution before finding a serene home as professors in a midwestern American college town.-

Историю этих событий мне рассказали мои родители, которые до того, как обрели безмятежную жизнь профессоров в студенческом городке средне-западной Америки, прошли через войну и революцию.

d) Syntactic replacement:

1) Replacing simple sentence complex / simple replacement of a complex sentence:

• They particularly did not want me to forget the Rape of Nanking-

В особенности они хотели, чтобы я помнила о резне в Нанкине.

• In a single blinding moment I recognized the fragility of not just life but the human experience itself. –

Именно в тот момент я не просто осознала, насколько хрупка жизнь, я поняла, насколько мало мы знаем о человеке.

• They have removed photographs of the Nanking massacre from museums, tampered with original source material, and excised from popular culture any mention of the massacre.-

Они убрали фотографии нанкинского геноцида из музеев, исказили первоисточники и сделали все, чтобы люди не узнали об этом событии.

• We want to know as much as you do –

Мы, как и Вы, хотим узнать правду

• The bandit, the wife, the dead samurai, and an eyewitness of the crime provide different versions of what happened.-

Разбойник, убитый самурай, его жена и свидетель преступления рассказывают свои версии случившегося.

• Then it launched its armed forces on a campaign of slaughter that started in Shanghai, moved through Nanking, and proceeded inland.

Тогда японцы активировали свои вооруженные силы в операции по массовому уничтожению сначала в Шанхае, затем в Нанкине, продвигаясь все дальше вглубь страны.

2) Replacement of the subordinate clause main / main clause subordinate

The following examples, we can consider using this type of replacement:

• In a disgraceful compounding of the offense, the story of the Nanking massacre is barely known in the West because so few people have tried to document and narrate it systematically to the public.-

Кроме того, эти преступления омрачаются тем постыдным фактом, что на Западе практически никому не известно о геноциде в Нанкине, потому что мало кто документировал эти события и регулярно пытался придать их огласке.

• The Rape of Nanking even made its way into a bill that will soon be introduced into the U.S. House of Representatives.-

Кроме того, в Палате Представителей Конгресса США скоро будет рассмотрен законопроект, который был разработан ввиду событий нанкинской резни.

However, when translating the text in question, we tried to avoid the use of this transformation, since the replacement of the main clause or a subordinate chief subordinate often entails distortion of narrative logic and theme-rheme relations within a sentence.

3) Replacing submission writing / essay submission:

• It did not occur to me, as a child, to pursue my research using the mammoth University of Illinois library system, and my curiosity about the matter soon slipped away.

Будучи ребенком, я не подумала о том, чтобы воспользоваться гигантской библиотечной системой университета Иллинойса для продолжения моего исследования, поэтому мое любопытство относительно этого события вскоре сошло на нет.

• In China even the lowliest Japanese private was considered superior to the most powerful and distinguished native, and it is easy to see how years of suppressed anger, hatred, and fear of authority could have erupted in uncontrollable violence at Nanking.-

В Китае любой японский солдат становился на голову выше любого самого знатного и могущественного китайца, поэтому не трудно представить, как годы постоянно подавляемых чувств ярости, ненависти и страха могли вылиться в неконтролируемую волну насилия в Нанкине.

• Many soldiers went beyond rape to disembowel women, slice off their breasts, nail them alive to walls.-

Многие солдаты не ограничивались изнасилованием и вспарывали женщинам живот, отрезали грудь, живыми прибивали гвоздями к стене.

4) Replacing union type connection asyndetic / conjunctionless communication type union

• There are several important lessons to be learned from Nanking, and one is that civilization itself is tissue-thin.-

Мы можем извлечь несколько важных уроков из истории Нанкина, один из которых это то, насколько хрупка наша цивилизация.

• But they never forgot the horrors of the Sino-Japanese War, nor did they want me to forget.

Но они навсегда запомнили ужасы сино-японской войны, и они не хотели, чтобы я забыла о произошедшем.

• What strengthened much of this newly emerging activism was the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989, which prodded Chinese communities all over the world to form networks to protest the actions of the People's Republic of China.-

Это недавно появившееся движение стало еще сильнее после событий на площади Тяньаньмэнь в 1989г, когда китайские общины по всему миру объединились, чтобы выразить несогласие с действиями Китайской Народной Республики.

• In urban centers with high concentrations of Chinese—such as the San Francisco Bay Area, New York City, Los Angeles, Toronto, and Vancouver—Chinese activists organized conferences and educational campaigns to disseminate information about Japanese crimes during World War II. –

В тех городских центрах, где проживает много китайцев, например, в Сан-Франциско, Нью-Йорке, Лос-Анджелесе, Торонто и Ванкувере китайские активисты организовывали конференции и просветительские движения, чтобы распространить информацию о преступлениях японцев во время Второй мировой войны.

• In a single blinding moment I recognized the fragility of not just life but the human experience itself.-

Именно в тот момент я не просто осознала, насколько хрупка жизнь, я поняла, насколько мало мы знаем о человеке.

• I am going to the front not to fight an enemy but in the state of mind of one who sets out to pacify his brother-

Я иду на войну не для того, чтобы сражаться с врагом, а чтобы усмирить наших братьев

 

Permutations

Permutations as a kind of translation and transformation - a change the location (the order of) the language elements in the translated text from the text of the original.

Speaking about the reshuffle, it should be noted that the translation of the text is often a need to permutation of the elements of different levels: words, phrases, sentences, and even parts of sentences. When translating from English into Russian word order change is often inevitable, as in the English word order is fixed, and in the Russian language, it is relatively free.

The most common case in the translation process - a change order of words and phrases in the sentence structure. It is known that slovoporyadok in English and Russian languages is not the same; this, of course, can not affect the course in translation. [25: 191]

• In a disgraceful compounding of the offense, the story of the Nanking massacre is barely known in the West because so few people have tried to document and narrate it systematically to the public.-

Кроме того, эти преступления омрачаются тем постыдным фактом, что на Западе практически никому не известно о геноциде в Нанкине, потому что мало кто документировал эти события и регулярно пытался придать их огласке.

• Perhaps it was General Matsui Iwane who summed up the prevailing mentality of self-delusion best when he attempted to justify Japanese oppression of China, Before he left for Shanghai in 1937, he told his supporters: "I am going to the front not to fight an enemy but in the state of mind of one who sets out to pacify his brother"-

Идею самообмана, которая стала частью японского менталитета, пожалуй, лучше всех резюмировал генерал Мацуи Иванэ при попытке оправдать угнетение китайцев японцами. Перед тем как в 1937 году генерал покинет Шанхай, он скажет своим сторонникам: «Я иду на войну не для того, чтобы сражаться с врагом, а чтобы усмирить наших братьев ».

• The Rape of Nanking even made its way into a bill that will soon be introduced into the U.S. House of Representatives.-

Кроме того, в Палате Представителей Конгресса США скоро будет рассмотрен законопроект, который был разработан ввиду событий нанкинской резни.

• They particularly did not want me to forget the Rape of Nanking-

В особенности они хотели, чтобы я помнила о резне в Нанкине.

 

Syntactic likening

Syntactic likeness (literal translation) - this method of translation, in which the syntactic structure of the original transformed into a similar structure PYA. This type of "zero" transformation is applied in those cases where the FL and IL have parallel syntactic structures. As a rule, however, the use of syntactic assimilation accompanied by some changes in the structural components. [Kazakov 2000 : 216]

• The chronicle of humankind's cruelty to fellow humans is a long and sorry tale.-

Хроника человеческой жестокости к себе подобным - это долгая и печальная история.

• For months the streets of the city were heaped with corpses and reeked with the stench of rotting human flesh.-

Месяцами улицы города были завалены трупами и источали зловонные запахи разлагающейся человеческой плоти.

• The Rape of Nanking is told from three different perspectives.-

Резня в Нанкине рассматривается с трех разных точек зрения.

Division and union proposals.

• This pervasive sense of danger has discouraged many serious scholars from visiting Japanese archives to conduct their research on the subject; indeed/ I was told in Nanking that the People's Republic of China rarely permits its scholars to journey to Japan for fear of jeopardizing their physical safety. –

Это всепроникающее чувство опасности помешало многим авторитетным ученым посетить японские архивы, дабы провести исследование по этому вопросу. В Нанкине мне рассказали, что Китайская Народная Республика редко разрешает своим ученым визиты в Японию, так как не хочет рисковать их физической безопасностью. (объединение)

• The result was a massive terrorist campaign in 1941 designed to exterminate everyone in the northern Chinese countryside. It reduced the population there from 44 million to 25 million people.-

В итоге в 1941г это вылилось в кампанию по массовому уничтожению сельских районов северного Китая, где в результате население сократилось с 44 до 25 миллионов человек. (объединение)

• His story rekindled my interest. Soon I was on the phone talking to not just one but two producers of documentaries on the subject.-

Это событие заново пробудило во мне интерес, и вскоре я уже вела телефонные переговоры, причем не с одним, а с двумя продюсерами документальных фильмов о Нанкине. (объединение)

• One person will call 911, and another will race down the street to alert a police officer on his or her beat. Someone else will take off his coat, fold it, and place it under your head, so that if these are indeed your last moments of life you will die in the small but real comfort of knowing that someone cared about you. –

• Кто-то вызовет скорую, кто-то побежит за полицией, а кто-то снимет пальто, свернет его и положит вам под голову, чтобы, если вы действительно умираете, вы знали, что кто-то о вас заботиться. (объединение)

• That the Nanking massacre of my childhood memories was not merely folk myth but accurate oral history hit me in December 1994, when I attended a conference sponsored by the Global Alliance for Preserving the History of World War II in Asia, which commemorated the victims of the Nanking atrocities. The conference was held in Cupertino, California, a San Jose suburb in the heart of Silicon Valley-

То, что нанкинская резня из моих детских воспоминаний была не просто народным сказанием, а реальным историческим фактом, поразило меня в декабре 1994г, когда я пришла на конференцию, которую спонсировал Всемирный Союз по охране истории Второй мировой войны в Азии. Конференция в память о жертвах Нанкина проходила в Купертино, штат Калифорния, в окрестностях Сан-Хосе, в самом центре Силиконовой долины.

(членение и объединение)

• Another was Nancy Tong, an independent filmmaker who had produced and codirected with Christine Choy the documentary In the Name of the Emperor.-

Второго продюсера звали Нэнси Тонг. Будучи независимым кинематографистом, она стала продюсером и, вместе с Кристин Чой, сорежиссёром документального фильма «Во имя Императора». (членение)

• The first was Shao Tzuping, a Chinese-American activist who had worked for the United Nations in New York, served as a past president of the Alliance in Memory of Victims of the Nanjing Massacre, and helped produce die videotape Magee's Testament. –

Первого звали Шао Цупинг- американский активист китайского происхождения, который раньше работал в ООН в Нью-Йорке. Он был экс-президентом Общества памяти жертв нанкинской резни, а также принимал участие в работе над фильмом «Показания Маги». (членение)

• By this time I was married and living a quiet life as a professional author in Santa Barbara, California, when I heard from a filmmaker friend that a couple of producers on the East Coast had recently completed a documentary on the Rape of Nanking but faced trouble getting funds to distribute the film properly.-

К тому времени я уже вышла замуж, стала профессиональным писателем и вела тихую жизнь в городе Санта-Барбара, штат Калифорния. Но тут я узнала от друга-кинорежиссёра, что несколько продюсеров с восточного побережья недавно сняли документальный фильм о нанкинской резне, однако из-за проблем с финансированием им не удалось представить его широкой публике. (членение)

• And it is not just the fact that while Germans have made repeated apologies to their Holocaust victims, the Japanese have enshrined their war criminals in Tokyo—an act that one American wartime victim of the Japanese has labeled politically equivalent to "erecting a cathedral for Hitler in the middle of Berlin."-

Дело даже не в том, что пока Германия неоднократно приносила извинения жертвам Холокоста, Япония бережно оберегала своих военных преступников в Токио. Один американец, пострадавший от японцев во время войны, сказал, что с политической точки зрения это было все равно, что «воздвигнуть Гитлеру собор в центре Берлина». (членение)

• The structure of the first part of my book—the history of the massacre—is largely influenced by Rashomon, a famous movie based on a short story ("Yabunonaka," or "In the Grove") by the Japanese novelist Akutagawa Ryunosuke about a rape-and-murder case in tenth-century Kyoto.-

На структуру первой части моей книги, повествующей об истории нанкинской резни, сильное влияние оказал знаменитый фильм «Расёмон», основанный на коротком рассказе японского писателя Акутагава Рюноске «Ябунонака» (что в переводе означает «В чаще»). Действие происходит в десятом веке в городе Киото, где идет судебное разбирательство по делу об убийстве и изнасиловании. (членение)

3.4 Lexical and grammatical transformations.

 

These transformations include those translation transformations that affect both grammatical and lexical levels of language. Such complex transformations are usually classified antonymic transfer, addition and omission.

 

Antonymic translation

Antonymic translation - it is the lexical and grammatical transformation, in which there is a replacement in the original form of the affirmative to negative form in translation or, conversely, negative on affirmative accompanied by replacement of a lexical unit DICE unit PYA with opposite meanings [Komissarov 1990: 183]

• They particularly did not want me to forget the Rape of Nanking-

В особенности они хотели, чтобы я помнила о резне в Нанкине.

• What is still stunning is that it was public rampage, evidently designed to terrorize.-Поразительно то, что эти преступления никак не скрывались, очевидно, с целью террора.

• In China even the lowliest Japanese private was considered superior to the most powerful and distinguished native, and it is easy to see how years of suppressed anger, hatred, and fear of authority could have erupted in uncontrollable violence at Nanking.-

В Китае любой японский солдат становился на голову выше любого самого знатного и могущественного китайца, поэтому не трудно представить, как годы постоянно подавляемых чувств ярости, ненависти и страха могли вылиться в неконтролируемую волну насилия в Нанкине.

• To be frank, your view of Chinese is totally different from mine. –

Честно говоря, мое мнение относительно китайцев абсолютно не совпадает с вашим.

• The Japanese have paid close to nothing for their wartime crimes. –

Японцы не выплатили практически ничего за свои военные преступления.

Adding

The cause of the need to add in the translated text is what can be called "formal unexpressed" semantic components phrase in the original language . [ Barkhudarov 1975: 198]

• Even respected history professors in Japan have joined right-wing forces to do what they perceive to be their national duty: discredit reports of a Nanking massacre.-

Даже авторитетные японские историки примкнули к правым силам, чтобы исполнить то, что они считали своим гражданским долгом: а именно, дискредитировать любую информацию о резне в Нанкине.

• In the documentary In the Name of the Emperor, one Japanese historian dismisses the entire Rape of Nanking with these words: "Even if twenty or thirty people had been killed, it would have been a great shock to Japan. Until that time, the Japanese troops had been exemplary."-

В документальном фильме «Во имя Императора» один японский ученый отверг сам факт геноцида со словами: «Даже если бы было убито двадцать или тридцать человек, это уже стало бы огромным потрясением для Японии. Японская армия всегда отличалась образцовым поведением».

• China itself tried to extend its influence over its neighbors and even entered into an agreement with Japan to delineate areas of influence on the Korean peninsula, much as the European powers divided up the commercial rights to China in the last century.-

Сами китайцы пытались расширить зону влияния на соседние страны и даже заключили соглашение с Японией, чтобы установить зону влияния на Корейском полуострове, подобно тому, как в прошлом веке европейские державы поделили между собой права на торговлю в Китае.

• I heard from a filmmaker friend that a couple of producers on the East Coast had recently completed a documentary on the Rape of Nanking but faced trouble getting funds to distribute the film properly.-

Но тут я узнала от друга-кинорежиссёра, что несколько продюсеров с восточного побережья недавно сняли документальный фильм о нанкинской резне, но из-за проблем с финансированием им не удалось представить его широкой публике.

 

Omission

This transformation is exactly the opposite of addition. When translating the omission exposed often words that are semantically redundant, ie expressing the values that can be extracted from the text without their help.

• It is important to establish that I will not be arguing that Japan was the sole imperialist force in the world, or even in Asia, during the first third of this century.-

Важно отметить, что я не собираюсь утверждать, что в первой трети XX века Япония была единственной империалистической силой мира или Азии.

• But the event lacked human details and human dimensions.-

Однако этой истории не хватало ни подробностей, ни объема.

• In recent years sincere attempts to have Japan face up to the consequences of its actions have been labeled "Japan bashing."-

В последнее время попытки заставить Японию признать последствия своих действий стали называть «выволочкой Японии».

• It is this deliberate attempt by certain Japanese to distort history that most strongly confirmed in me the need for this book –

Именно такие целенаправленные попытки некоторых японцев исказить исторические факты убедили меня в необходимости этой книги.

• It is not just that Japan has doled out less than 1 percent of the amount that Germany has paid in war reparations to its victims. –

Дело не только в том, что Япония не выплатила и одного процента от той суммы, которую возместила Германия в качестве репараций.

 Conclusion

 In the course of the analysis in this chapter, we found that translation of the text demanded from us most of the use of the same lexical transformation x minutes as specification, neutralization, and modulation. Using these tools, we were able to convey the semantics of the text, while respecting his style. In terms of grammar, we most frequently used different kinds of grammatical substitutions, permutations and members and union proposals. Using these transformations due to differences in grammatical structures ah Russian and English language s. Among the lexical and grammatical transformations often we used the addition and omission, since the use of these techniques helps to compensate for differences in linguistic thinking, which appear in the sense of redundancy or deficiency of one form of expression and the same concept as compared with the native language.

Rarely met such translation transformation, as a descriptive translation (explication) to compensation (transfer by analogy), f of functional replacement, s Replacing a subordinate clause main / subordinate chief, s Replacing submission writing / essay submission and syntactical assimilation. This reflects the fact that the use of the above transformations may entail either a distortion of semantics or logic text or violation of Russian Language Usage.

In general, it should be noted that, in accordance with the recommendations of translators and translation theorists practitioners, we have sought to apply the transformation only in those cases where it was impossible to save the lexical-grammatical and syntactic structure of the organization of the original text

Conclusion

 

In this paper we presented a Russian translation of artistic and journalistic th text and to whom we gave a general characterization. We also conducted an analysis of the difficulties encountered in the translation process and justify the adequacy of the use of certain transformations, depending on the specifics of the source material.

Similarities in lexical composition and grammatical structure of the two languages causes the difficulties of translation. With the translator difficulties encountered, ranging from individual non-translatable text elements and to the problems of transmission of the text of the communicative effect secondary receptor.

The first stage of our work has shown the importance of implementing predperevodcheskogo analysis helped guide to identify the main difficulty of the text. At this stage of the interpreter is required to collect the maximum amount of background information to adequately evaluate the source material and to choose the right strategy Interpreter.

The next step was to direct translation of the text. We found that at this stage of the translator requires the ability to properly apply different translation transformation, use a dictionary and reference information, if necessary, to read more books. To correctly apply the translation techniques, the interpreter must equally or almost equally know the original and transforms languages, navigate the category text, understand the implications and intentions of the author.

At the last stage of the work we carried out comparative analysis of the original text and translation of the text, gave justification undertaken translation solutions and illustrate the main e Translation difficulties and e.

In general, translation and analysis of the test material showed that the quality of the translation of these texts depends on the professional level translator, translation experience artistic and journalistic texts, texts on military subjects, from the fullness of understanding of the source material, the level of ownership and DICE PYA latitude and background knowledge .

Our first experience of such a transfer - a relatively large amount of artistic and journalistic text - let us make sure that the presence of theoretical knowledge and practical experience of translation allows to solve translation problems of any complexity.

 

 

 

 

 

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Translational transformations as an essence of translation. Posttranslated text analysis