Lexicology of the English Language

МOCКОВСКИЙ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Курс лекций и планы семинарских занятий

по лексикологии английского языка

(для студентов третьего курса)

Cocтавитель : Э. М. Дубенец, к.ф.н., доц.

This course of lexicology which forms a part of the curriculum for the English sections of linguistic departments of teacher-training colleges is intended for students of the third year of the day department. It includes 15 lectures and 12 seminars which cover the main themes of Modern English lexicology: wordbuilding, semantic changes, phraseology, borrowings, semasiology, neology, lexicography. The material for seminars includes topics to be discussed, test questions and lexical units to be analized. Lexical units for the analysis were chosen mainly among neologisms. There is also a brief list of recommended literature.

The aim of the course is to teach students to be word-conscious, to be able to guess the meaning of words they come across from the meanings of morphemes, to be able to recognize the origin of this or that lexical unit.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Language units

Wordbuilding

Affixation

Compound words

Conversion

Substantivization

ВлStone wallВ» combinations

Abbreviations

Seconadary ways of wordbuilding

Semantic changes

Specialization

Generalization

Metaphor and metonymy

Phraseology

Ways of forming phraseological units

Semantic classification of phraseological units

Structural classification of phraseological units

Syntactical classification of phraseological units

Borrowings

Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect

Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation

Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed.

Romanic borrowings/ Latin, French, Italian, Spanish/.

Germanic borrowings /Scandinavian, German, Holland/ .

Russian borrowings.

Etymological doublets.

Semaciology.

Word - meaning.

Lexical meaning - notion.

Polysemy.

Homonyms.

Synonyms .

Antonyms .

Local varieties of English.

British and American English.

Archaisms.

Neologisms.

Lexicography.

LEXICOLOGY

The term ВлlexicologyВ» is of Greek origin / from ВлlexisВ» - ВлwordВ» and ВлlogosВ» - ВлscienceВ»/ . Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.

The term ВлvocabularyВ» is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses.

The term ВлwordВ» denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest unit of a language which can stand alone as a complete utterance.

The term Влword-groupВ» denotes a group of words which exists in the language as a ready-made unit, has the unity of meaning, the unity of syntactical function, e.g. the word-group Влas loose as a gooseВ» means ВлclumsyВ» and is used in a sentence as a predicative / He is as loose as a goose/.

Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of their sound form and meaning. In this case it is called historical lexicology.

Another branch of lexicology is called descriptive and studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its development.

LANGUAGE UNITS

The main unit of the lexical system of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning is a word. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest language unit which can stand alone as a complete utterance.

A word, however, can be divided into smaller sense units - morphemes. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit. The morpheme consists of a class of variants, allomorphs, which are either phonologically or morphologically conditioned, e.g. please, pleasant, pleasure.

Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and grammatical (functional) morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words which express the lexical meaning of the word, they coincide with the stem of simple words. Free grammatical morphemes are function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions ( the, with, and).

Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: prefixes (dis-), suffixes (-ish) and also blocked (unique) root morphemes (e.g. Fri-day, cran-berry). Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings), e.g. -s for the Plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs, -ing for the Present Participle, -er for the Comparative degree of adjectives.

In the second half of the twentieth century the English wordbuilding system was enriched by creating so called splinters which scientists include in the affixation stock of the Modern English wordbuilding system. Splinters are the result of clipping the end or the beginning of a word and producing a number of new words on the analogy with the primary word-group. For example, there are many words formed with the help of the splinter mini- (apocopy produced by clipping the word ВлminiatureВ»), such as ВлminiplaneВ», ВлminijetВ», ВлminicycleВ», ВлminicarВ», ВлminiradioВ» and many others. All of these words denote obects of smaller than normal dimensions.

On the analogy with Влmini-В» there appeared the splinter ВлmaxiВ»- (apocopy produced by clipping the word ВлmaximumВ»), such words as Влmaxi-seriesВ», Влmaxi-sculptureВ», Влmaxi-taxiВ» and many others appeared in the language.

When European economic community was organized quite a number of neologisms with the splinter Euro- (apocopy produced by clipping the word ВлEuropeanВ») were coined, such as: ВлEuratomВ» ВлEurocardВ», ВлEuromarketВ», ВлEuroplugВ», ВлEurotunnelВ» and many others. These splinters are treated sometimes as prefixes in Modern English.

There are also splinters which are formed by means of apheresis, that is clipping the beginning of a word. The origin of such splinters can be variable, e.g. the splinter ВлburgerВ» appeared in English as the result of clipping the German borrowing ВлHamburgerВ» where the morphological structure was the stem ВлHamburgВ» and the suffix -er. However in English the beginning of the word ВлHamburgerВ» was associated with the English word ВлhamВ», and the end of the word ВлburgerВ» got the meaning Влa bun cut into two partsВ». On the analogy with the word ВлhamburgerВ» quite a number of new words were coined, such as: ВлbaconburgerВ», ВлbeefburgerВ», ВлcheeseburgerВ», ВлfishburgerВ» etc.

The splinter ВлcadeВ» developed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлcavalcadeВ» which is of Latin origin. In Latin the verb with the meaning Влto ride a horseВ» is ВлcabalicareВ» and by means of the inflexion -ata the corresponding Participle is formed. So the element ВлcadeВ» is a combination of the final letter of the stem and the inflexion. The splinter ВлcadeВ» serves to form nouns with the meaning Влconnected with the procession of vehicles denoted by the first componentВ», e.g. ВлaircadeВ» - Влa group of airplanes accompanying the plane of a VIPВ» , ВлautocadeВ» - Влa group of automobiles escorting the automobile of a VIPВ», ВлmusicadeВ» - Влan orchestra participating in a processionВ».

In the seventieths of the twentieth century there was a political scandal in the hotel ВлWatergateВ» where the Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election headquarters. Republicans managed to install bugs there and when they were discovered there was a scandal and the ruling American government had to resign. The name ВлWatergateВ» acquired the meaning Влa political scandalВ», ВлcorruptionВ». On the analogy with this word quite a number of other words were formed by using the splinter ВлgateВ» (apheresis of the word ВлWatergateВ»), such as: ВлIrangateВ», В»WestlandgateВ», В»shuttlegateВ», В»milliongateВ» etc. The splinter ВлgateВ» is added mainly to Proper names: names of people with whom the scandal is connected or a geographical name denoting the place where the scandal occurred.

The splinter ВлmobileВ» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлautomobileВ» and is used to denote special types of automobiles, such as: ВлartmobileВ», ВлbookmobileВ», ВлsnowmobileВ», ВлtourmobileВ» etc.

The splinter ВлnapperВ» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлkidnapperВ» and is used to denote different types of crimesters, such as : ВлbusnapperВ», ВлbabynapperВ», ВлdognapperВ» etc. From such nouns the corresponding verbs are formed by means of backformation, e.g. Влto busnapВ», Влto babynapВ», Влto dognapВ».

The splinter ВлomatВ» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлautomatВ» (a cafe in which meals are provided in slot-machines). The meaning Влself-serviceВ» is used in such words as ВлlaundromatВ», ВлcashomatВ» etc.

Another splinter ВлeteriaВ» with the meaning Влself-serviceВ» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлcafeteriaВ». By means of the splinter ВлeteriaВ» the following words were formed: ВлgroceteriaВ», ВлbooketeriaВ», ВлbooteteriaВ» and many others.

The splinter ВлquakeВ» is used to form new words with the meaning of ВлshakingВ», ВлagitationВ». This splinter was formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлearthquakeВ». Ther following words were formed with the help of this splinter: ВлMarsquakeВ», ВлMoonquakeВ», ВлyouthquakeВ» etc.

The splinter Влrama(ama)В» is a clipping of the word ВлpanoramaВ» of Greek origin where ВлpanВ» means ВлallВ» and ВлhoramaВ» means ВлviewВ». In Modern English the meaning ВлviewВ» was lost and the splinter ВлramaВ» is used in advertisements to denote objects of supreme quality, e.g. ВлautoramaВ» means Влexhibition-sale of expensive carsВ», ВлtrouseramaВ» means Влsale of trousers of supreme qualityВ» etc.

The splinter ВлscapeВ» is a clipping of the word ВлlandscapeВ» and it is used to form words denoting different types of landscapes, such as: ВлmoonscapeВ», ВлstreetscapeВ», ВлtownscapeВ», ВлseascapeВ» etc.

Another case of splinters is ВлtelВ» which is the result of clipping the beginning of the word ВлhotelВ». It serves to form words denoting different types of hotels, such as: ВлmotelВ» (motor-car hotel), ВлboatelВ» (boat hotel), ВлfloatelВ» (a hotel on water, floating), ВлairtelВ» (airport hotel) etc.

The splinter ВлthequeВ» is the result of clipping the beginning of the word ВлapothequeВ» of Greek origin which means in Greek Влa store houseВ». In Russian words: ВлбиблиотекаВ», ВлкартотекаВ», ВлфильмотекаВ» the element ВлтекаВ» corresponding to the English ВлthequeВ» preserves the meaning of storing something which is expressed by the first component of the word. In English the splinter ВлthequeВ» is used to denote a place for dancing, such as: ВлdiscothequeВ», ВлjazzothequeВ».

The splinter ВлthonВ» is the result of clipping the beginning of the word ВлmarathonВ». ВлMarathonВ» primarily was the name of a battle-field in Greece, forty miles from Athens, where there was a battle between the Greek and the Persian. When the Greek won a victory a Greek runner was sent to Athens to tell people about the victory. Later on the word ВлMarathonВ» was used to denote long-distance competitions in running. The splinter Влthon(athon)В» denotes Влsomething continuing for a long timeВ», Влcompetition in enduranceВ» e.g. ВлdancathonВ», ВлtelethonВ», ВлspeakathonВ», ВлreadathonВ», ВлwalkathonВ», ВлmoviethonВ», ВлswimathonВ», ВлtalkathonВ», ВлswearthonВ» etc.

Splinters can be the result of clipping adjectives or substantivized adjectives. The splinter ВлaholicВ» (holic) was formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлalcoholicВ» of Arabian origin where ВлalВ» denoted ВлtheВ», ВлkohтАЩlВ» - Влpowder for staining lidsВ». The splinter Вл(a)holicВ» means Влinfatuated by the object expressed by the stem of the wordВ» , e.g. ВлbookaholicВ», ВлcomputerholicВ», ВлcoffeeholicВ», ВлcheesaholicВ», ВлworkaholicВ» and many others.

The splinter ВлgenicВ» formed by clipping the beginning of the word ВлphotogenicВ» denotes the notion Влsuitable for something denoted by the stemВ», e.g. ВлallergenicВ», ВлcardiogenicВ», ВлmediagenicВ», ВлtelegenicВ» etc.

As far as verbs are concerned it is not typical of them to be clipped that is why there is only one splinter to be used for forming new verbs in this way. It is the splinter ВлcastВ» formed by clipping the beginning of the verb ВлbroadcastВ». This splinter was used to form the verbs ВлtelecastВ» and ВлabroadcastВ».

Splinters can be called pseudomorphemes because they are neither roots nor affixes, they are more or less artificial. In English there are words which consist of two splinters, e.g. ВлtelethonВ», therefore it is more logical to call words with splinters in their structure Влcompound-shortened words consisting of two clippings of wordsВ».

Splinters have only one function in English: they serve to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, whereas prefixes and suffixes can also change the part-of-speech meaning , e.g. the prefix Влen-В» and its allomorph ВлemВ» can form verbs from noun and adjective stems (ВлembodyВ», ВлenableВ», ВлendangerВ»), Влbe-В» can form verbs from noun and adjective stems (ВлbecloudВ», ВлbenumbВ»), Влpost-В» and Влpre-В» can form adjectives from noun stems (Влpre-election campaignВ», Влpost-war eventsВ»). The main function of suffixes is to form one part of speech from another part of speech, e.g. Вл-erВ», Вл-ingВ», Вл-mentВ» form nouns from verbal stems (ВлteacherВ», ВлdancingВ», ВлmovementВ»), Вл-nessВ», Вл-ityВ» are used to form nouns from adjective stems (ВлclannishnesВ», ВлmarginalityВ»).

According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituting a word there are different structural types of words in English: simple, derived, compound, compound-derived.

Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many cases the inflexion is zero), e.g. ВлseldomВ», ВлchairsВ», ВлlongerВ», ВлaskedВ».

Derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inlexion, e.g. ВлderistrictedВ», ВлunemployedВ».

Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, e.g. Влbaby-moonsВ», Влwait-and-see (policy)В».

Compound-derived words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, e.g. Влmiddle-of-the-roadersВ», Влjob-hopperВ».

When speaking about the structure of words stems also should be mentioned. The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the stem ВлhopВ» can be found in the words: ВлhopВ», ВлhopsВ», ВлhoppedВ», ВлhoppingВ». The stem ВлhippieВ» can be found in the words: ВлhippieВ», ВлhippiesВ», ВлhippieтАЩsВ», ВлhippiesтАЩВ». The stem Влjob-hopВ» can be found in the words : Влjob-hopВ», Влjob-hopsВ», Влjob-hoppedВ», Влjob-hoppingВ».

So stems, the same as words, can be simple, derived, compound and compound-derived. Stems have not only the lexical meaning but also grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning, they can be noun stems (ВлgirlВ» in the adjective ВлgirlishВ»), adjective stems (ВлgirlishВ» in the noun ВлgirlishnessВ»), verb stems (ВлexpellВ» in the noun ВлexpelleeВ») etc. They differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words.

Sometimes it is rather difficult to distinguish between simple and derived words, especially in the cases of phonetic borrowings from other languages and of native words with blocked (unique) root morphemes, e.g. ВлperestroikaВ», ВлcranberryВ», ВлabsenceВ» etc.

As far as words with splinters are concerned it is difficult to distinguish between derived words and compound-shortened words. If a splinter is treated as an affix (or a semi-affix) the word can be called derived , e.g.-, ВлtelescreenВ», Влmaxi-taxiВ» , ВлshuttlegateВ», ВлcheeseburgerВ». But if the splinter is treated as a lexical shortening of one of the stems , the word can be called compound-shortened word formed from a word combination where one of the components was shortened, e.g. ВлbusnapperВ» was formed from Вл bus kidnapperВ», ВлminijetВ» from Влminiature jetВ».

In the English language of the second half of the twentieth century there developed so called block compounds, that is compound words which have a uniting stress but a split spelling, such as Влchat showВ», Влpinguin suitВ» etc. Such compound words can be easily mixed up with word-groups of the type Влstone wallВ», so called nominative binomials. Such linguistic units serve to denote a notion which is more specific than the notion expressed by the second component and consists of two nouns, the first of which is an attribute to the second one. If we compare a nominative binomial with a compound noun with the structure N+N we shall see that a nominative binomial has no unity of stress. The change of the order of its components will change its lexical meaning, e.g. Влvid kidВ» is Влa kid who is a video fanВ» while Влkid vidВ» means Влa video-film for kidsВ» or else Влlamp oilВ» means Влoil for lampsВ» and Влoil lampВ» means Влa lamp which uses oil for burningВ».

Among language units we can also point out word combinations of different structural types of idiomatic and non-idiomatic character, such as Влthe first fiddleВ», Влold saltВ» and Влround tableВ», Влhigh roadВ». There are also sentences which are studied by grammarians.

Thus, we can draw the conclusion that in Modern English the following language units can be mentioned: morphemes, splinters, words, nominative binomials, non-idiomatic and idiomatic word-combinations, sentences.

WORDBUILDING

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation.

AFFIXATION

Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.

Suffixation.

The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. ВлeducateВ» is a verb, ВлeducateeВ» is a noun, and Вл musicВ» is a noun, ВлmusicdomВ» is also a noun) .

There are different classifications of suffixes :

1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here :

a) noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism),

b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious),

c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),

d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward),

e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).

2. Semantic classification . Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:

a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student),

b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),

c) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), -ati ( literati),

d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette),

e) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).

3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:

a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization),

b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish),

c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:

a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly.

b) Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.

c) Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.

d) Russian, such as -nik.

5. Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:

a) productive, such as : -er, -ize, --ly, -ness.

b) semi-productive, such as : -eer, -ette, -ward.

c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length).

Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as : -er can form nouns with the following meanings : agent,doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably, -ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).

There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme in the structure of a word, in such cases we call such morphemes semi-suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either as derived words or as compound words, e.g. -gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic) etc.

Prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used : prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) ( cf over the table ).

The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).

Prefixes can be classified according to different principles :

1. Semantic classification :

a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc,

b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect),

c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.

2. Origin of prefixes:

a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.

b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.

c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.

When we analyze such words as : adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as : contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones.

There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.

COMPOSITION

Composition is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon : a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphonated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are charachteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white,sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphonated spelling.

Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, iinsofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, pinguin suit etc.

The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e. g., airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc.

English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. ВлChatter-boxesВ» is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically.

There are two characteristic features of English compounds:

a) Both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. Влa green-houseВ» and Влa green houseВ». Whereas for example in Russian compounds the stems are bound morphemes, as a rule.

b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off-the-record, up-and-doing etc. The two-stem pattern distinguishes English compounds from German ones.

WAYS OF FORMING COMPOUND WORDS.

Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of :

a) reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplicatin combined with sound interchange , e.g. rope-ripe,

b) conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, makeup etc,

c) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc ,

d) analogy, e.g. lie-in ( on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in, brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS

1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

a) nouns, such as : baby-moon, globe-trotter,

b) adjectives, such as : free-for-all, power-happy,

c) verbs, such as : to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,

d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst,

e) prepositions, such as: into, within,

f) numerals, such as : fifty-five.

2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into:

a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop,

b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element : vowels ВлoВ» or ВлiВ» or the consonant ВлsВ», e.g. {ВлastrospaceВ», ВлhandicraftВ», ВлsportsmanВ»),

c) syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all., do-or-die .

3. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:

a) compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go, tip-top ,

b) derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer,

c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter,

d) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford.

4. According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into :

a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different:

with comparative relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with limiting relations, e.g. breast-high, knee-deep, with emphatic relations, e.g. dog-cheap, with objective relations, e.g. gold-rich, with cause relations, e.g. love-sick, with space relations, e.g. top-heavy, with time relations, e.g. spring-fresh, with subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore etc

b) coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie.

5. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe .

CONVERSION

Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term ВлconversionВ» first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet ВлNew English GrammarВ» in 1891. Conversion is treated differently by different scientists, e.g. prof. A.I. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb Влto dialВ» from the noun ВлdialВ» we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial,dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing). A. Marchand in his book ВлThe Categories and Types of Present-day EnglishВ» treats conversion as a morphological-syntactical word-building because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good paper for my room. (The noun ВлpaperВ» is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb ВлpaperВ» is the predicate in the sentence).

Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of that, e.g.

a) verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body e.g. to eye, to finger, to elbow, to shoulder etc. They have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail,

b) verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to crowd, to wolf, to ape,

c) verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper,

d) verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket,

e) verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to winter, to week-end .

Verbs can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, e.g. to tame (to become or make tame) , to clean, to slim etc.

Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:

a) instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move,

b) process or state e.g. sleep, walk,

c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a help, a flirt, a scold ,

d) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase,

e) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a drive, a stop, a walk.

Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the Singular form and denote momentaneous actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as : to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim .

CRITERIA OF SEMANTIC DERIVATION

In cases of conversion the problem of criteria of semantic derivation arises : which of the converted pair is primary and which is converted from it. The problem was first analized by prof. A.I. Smirnitsky. Later on P.A. Soboleva developed his idea and worked out the following criteria:

1. If the lexical meaning of the root morpheme and the lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide the word is primary, e.g. in cases pen - to pen, father - to father the nouns are names of an object and a living being. Therefore in the nouns ВлpenВ» and ВлfatherВ» the lexical meaning of the root and the lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide. The verbs Влto penВ» and Вл to fatherВ» denote an action, a process therefore the lexico-grammatical meanings of the stems do not coincide with the lexical meanings of the roots. The verbs have a complex semantic structure and they were converted from nouns.

2. If we compare a converted pair with a synonymic word pair which was formed by means of suffixation we can find out which of the pair is primary. This criterion can be applied only to nouns converted from verbs, e.g. ВлchatВ» n. and ВлchatВ» v. can be compared with ВлconversationВ» - ВлconverseВ».

3. The criterion based on derivational relations is of more universal character. In this case we must take a word-cluster of relative words to which the converted pair belongs. If the root stem of the word-cluster has suffixes added to a noun stem the noun is primary in the converted pair and vica versa, e.g. in the word-cluster : hand n., hand v., handy, handful the derived words have suffixes added to a noun stem, that is why the noun is primary and the verb is converted from it. In the word-cluster: dance n., dance v., dancer, dancing we see that the primary word is a verb and the noun is converted from it.

SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ADJECTIVES

Some scientists (Yespersen, Kruisinga ) refer substantivization of adjectives to conversion. But most scientists disagree with them because in cases of substantivization of adjectives we have quite different changes in the language. Substantivization is the result of ellipsis (syntactical shortening ) when a word combination with a semantically strong attribute loses its semantically weak noun (man, person etc), e.g. Влa grown-up personВ» is shortened to Влa grown-upВ». In cases of perfect substantivization the attribute takes the paradigm of a countable noun , e.g. a criminal, criminals, a criminalтАЩs (mistake) , criminalsтАЩ (mistakes). Such words are used in a sentence in the same function as nouns, e.g. I am fond of musicals. (musical comedies).

There are also two types of partly substantivized adjectives:

those which have only the plural form and have the meaning of collective nouns, such as: sweets, news, empties, finals, greens,

those which have only the singular form and are used with the definite article. They also have the meaning of collective nouns and denote a class, a nationality, a group of people, e.g. the rich, the English, the dead .

ВлSTONE WALLВ» COMBINATIONS.

The problem whether adjectives can be formed by means of conversion from nouns is the subject of many discussions. In Modern English there are a lot of word combinations of the type , e.g. price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet, sand castle etc.

If the first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun, combinations of this type are free word-groups typical of English (adjective + noun). This point of view is proved by O. Yespersen by the following facts:

1. ВлStoneВ» denotes some quality of the noun ВлwallВ».

2. ВлStoneВ» stands before the word it modifies, as adjectives in the function of an attribute do in English.

3. ВлStoneВ» is used in the Singular though its meaning in most cases is plural,and adjectives in English have no plural form.

4. There are some cases when the first component is used in the Comparative or the Superlative degree, e.g. the bottomest end of the scale.

5. The first component can have an adverb which characterizes it, and adjectives are characterized by adverbs, e.g. a purely family gathering.

6. The first component can be used in the same syntactical function with a proper adjective to characterize the same noun, e.g. lonely bare stone houses.

7. After the first component the pronoun ВлoneВ» can be used instead of a noun, e.g. I shall not put on a silk dress, I shall put on a cotton one.

However Henry Sweet and some other scientists say that these criteria are not characterisitc of the majority of such units.

They consider the first component of such units to be a noun in the function of an attribute because in Modern English almost all parts of speech and even word-groups and sentences can be used in the function of an attribute, e.g. the then president (an adverb), out-of-the-way vilages (a word-group), a devil-may-care speed (a sentence).

There are different semantic relations between the components of Влstone wallВ» combinations. E.I. Chapnik classified them into the following groups:

1. time relations, e.g. evening paper,

2. space relations, e.g. top floor,

3. relations between the object and the material of which it is made, e.g. steel helmet,

4. cause relations, e.g. war orphan,

5. relations between a part and the whole, e.g. a crew member,

6. relations between the object and an action, e.g. arms production,

7. relations between the agent and an action e.g. government threat, price rise,

8. relations between the object and its designation, e.g. reception hall,

9. the first component denotes the head, organizer of the characterized object, e.g. Clinton government, Forsyte family,

10. the first component denotes the field of activity of the second component, e.g. language teacher, psychiatry doctor,

11. comparative relations, e.g. moon face,

12. qualitative relations, e.g. winter apples.

ABBREVIATION

In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms , initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time.

There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing ВлfanaticusВ» is shortened to ВлfanВ» on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc.

There are two main types of shortenings : graphical and lexical.

Graphical abbreviations

Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing.

The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form,e.g. for example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No - number (numero), p.a. - a year (per annum), d - penny (dinarius), lb - pound (libra), i. e. - that is (id est) etc.

Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced Влin the afternoonВ» (post meridiem) and Влafter deathВ» (post mortem).

There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them :

a) days of the week, e.g. Mon - Monday, Tue - Tuesday etc

b) names of months, e.g. Apr - April, Aug - August etc.

c) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks -Berkshire etc

d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala - Alabama, Alas - Alaska etc.

e) names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc.

f) military ranks, e.g. capt. -captain, col. - colonel, sgt - sergeant etc.

g) scientific degrees, e.g. B.A. - Bachelor of Arts, D.M. - Doctor of Medicine . ( Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e.g., M.B. - Medicinae Baccalaurus).

h) units of time, length, weight, e.g. f. / ft -foot/feet, sec. - second, in. -inch, mg. - milligram etc.

The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. ВлmВ» can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, Влl.p.В» can be read as long-playing, low pressure.

Initial abbreviations

Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. - joint venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.

In some cases the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using special dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of their origin, e.g. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is given in Russian as АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) was for a long time used in Russian as СОЛТ, now a translation variant is used (ОСВ -Договор об ограничении стратегических вооружений). This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages is preferable, e.g. UFO - НЛО, CП - JV etc.

There are three types of initialisms in English:

a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc

b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.

c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School System).

Some scientists unite groups b) and c) into one group which they call acronyms.

Some initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of wordbuilding:

a) affixation, e.g. AWALism, ex-rafer, ex- POW, to waafize, AIDSophobia etc.

b) conversion, e.g. to raff, to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules),

c) composition, e.g. STOLport, USAFman etc.

d) there are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc. In some cases the first component is a complete word and the second component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three -Ds (Three dimensions) - стереофильм.

Abbreviations of words

Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word. In such cases as В»fantasyВ» and ВлfancyВ», ВлfenceВ» and ВлdefenceВ» we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as ВлlaboratoryВ» and ВлlabВ», we have different styles.

Abbreviation does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy etc. As a rule pronouns, numerals, interjections. conjunctions are not abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in oneтАЩs teens (apheresis from numerals from 13 to 19).

Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a group of words ending in ВлoВ», such as disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduction) and many others. On the analogy with these words there developed in Modern English a number of words where ВлoВ» is added as a kind of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) - небольшой эстрадный ансамбль, Afro (African) -прическа под африканца etc. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have apheresis , e.g. chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter (helicopter) , thuse (enthuse) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine) maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Sometimes we have a combination of apocope with apheresis,when the beginning and the end of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van (avanguard) etc.

Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. ВлcВ» can be substituted by ВлkВ» before ВлeВ» to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax( facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are substituded by letters characteristic of native English words.

SECONDARY WAYS OF WORDBUILDING

SOUND INTERCHANGE

Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages.

The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development known to scientists., e.g. to strike - stroke, to sing - song etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the root ( regressive assimilation), e.g. hot - to heat (hotian), blood - to bleed (blodian) etc.

In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal position, e.g. bath - to bathe, life - to live, breath - to breathe etc.

STRESS INTERCHANGE

Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin : nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent - to ac`cent. This phenomenon is explained in the following way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were borrowed into English, verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the second from the end) . Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable. As a result of it we have such pairs in English as : to af`fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract - `extract etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions.

SOUND IMITATION

It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation

a) sounds produced by human beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle etc.

b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as : to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter etc.

c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as : to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.

The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) etc.

BLENDS

Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are combined : abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second component (apheresis) . As a result we have a compound- shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word ВлsmogВ» from two synonyms : smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the end, ВлoВ» is common for both of them.

Blends formed from two synonyms are: slanguange, to hustle, gasohol etc. Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as : acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy), detectifiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial) , Medicare ( medical care) , magalog ( magazine catalogue) slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist ( slang linguist) etc.

BACK FORMATION

It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the languauge as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word . Prof. Yartseva explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word ВлbeggarВ» was borrowed into English the final syllable ВлarВ» was pronounced in the same way as the English -er and Englishmen formed the verb Влto begВ» by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples of back formation are : to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion) to reminisce ( from reminiscence) , to televise (from television) etc.

As we can notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is changed, verbs are formed from nouns.

SEMANTIC CHANGES

The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change.

The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e.g. the change of the lexical meaning of the noun ВлpenВ» was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily Вл penВ» comes back to the Latin word ВлpennaВ» (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called Вл a penВ».

On the other hand causes can be linguistic, e.g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may specialize in its meaning, e.g. the noun ВлtideВ» in Old English was polisemantic and denoted ВлtimeВ», ВлseasonВ», ВлhourВ». When the French words ВлtimeВ», ВлseasonВ», ВлhourВ» were borrowed into English they ousted the word ВлtideВ» in these meanings. It was specialized and now means Влregular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moonВ». The meaning of a word can also change due to ellipsis, e.g. the word-group Влa train of carriagesВ» had the meaning of Влa row of carriagesВ», later on Влof carriagesВ» was dropped and the noun ВлtrainВ» changed its meaning, it is used now in the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group.

Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in his work ВлPrinzipien des SprachgeschichteВ». It is based on the logical principle. He distiguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual ( specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litote).

SPECIALIZATION

It is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication, e.g. ВлcaseВ» has a general meaning Влcircumstances in which a person or a thing isВ». It is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings is revealed in the context.

The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language, e.g. the native word ВлmeatВ» had the meaning ВлfoodВ», this meaning is preserved in the compound ВлsweetmeatsВ». The meaning Влedible fleshВ» was formed when the word ВлfoodВ», its absolute synonym, won in the conflict of absolute synonyms (both words are native). The English verb ВлstarveВ» was specialized in its meaning after the Scandinavian verb ВлdieВ» was borrowed into English. ВлDieВ» became the general verb with this meaning because in English there were the noun ВлdeathВ» and the adjective ВлdeadВ». ВлStarveВ» got the meaning Влto die of hungerВ» .

The third way of specialization is the formation of Proper names from common nouns, it is often used in toponimics, e.g. the City - the business part of London, Oxford - university town in England, the Tower -originally a fortress and palace, later -a prison, now - a museum.

The fourth way of specialization is ellipsis. In such cases primaraly we have a word-group of the type Влattribute + nounВ», which is used constantly in a definite situation. Due to it the attribute can be dropped and the noun can get the meaning of the whole word-group, e.g. ВлroomВ» originally meant ВлspaceВ», this meaning is retained in the adjective ВлroomyВ» and word combinations: Влno room forВ», Влto take roomВ», Влto take no roomВ». The meaning of the word Влroom Вл was specialized because it was often used in the combinations: Влdining roomВ», Влsleeping roomВ» which meant Влspace for diningВ» , Влspace for sleepingВ».

GENERALIZATION

It is a process contrary to specializaton, in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time.

The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.g. ВлreadyВ» (a derivative from the verb ВлridanВ» - ВлrideВ») meant Влprepared for a rideВ», now its meaning is Влprepared for anythingВ». ВлJourneyВ» was borrowed from French with the meaning Влone day tripВ», now it means Влa trip of any durationВ».

All auxiliary verbs are cases of generalization of their lexical meaning because they developed a grammatical meaning : ВлhaveВ», ВлbeВ», ВлdoВ», ВлshallВ» , ВлwillВ» when used as auxiliary verbs are devoid of their lexical meaning which they have when used as notional verbs or modal verbs, e.g. cf. ВлI have several books by this writerВ» and ВлI have read some books by this authorВ». In the first sentence the verb ВлhaveВ» has the meaning ВлpossessВ», in the second sentence it has no lexical meaning, its grammatical meaning is to form Present Perfect.

METAPHOR

It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of similarity:

a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb);

b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession);

c) similarity of function, behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting);

d) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut etc.

In some cases we have a complex similarity, e.g. the leg of a table has a similarity to a human leg in its shape, position and function.

Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body, e.g. an eye of a needle, arms and mouth of a river, head of an army.

A special type of metaphor is when Proper names become common nouns, e.g. philistine - a mercenary person, vandals - destructive people, a Don Juan - a lover of many women etc.

METONYMY

It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy:

a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object , e.g. a glass, boards, iron etc;

b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House - members of Parliament, Fleet Street - bourgeois press, the White House - the Administration of the USA etc;

c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin, the saxophone;

d) the name of some person may becom a common noun, e.g. ВлboycottВ» was originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them, ВлsandwichВ» was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to soil his fingers.

e) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. ВлwattВ» , ВлomВ», ВлrentgenВ» etc

f) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets) , china (porcelain) , astrachan ( a sheep fur) etc.

ELEVATION

It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. ВлknightВ» originally meant Влa boyВ», then Влa young servantВ», then Влa military servantВ», then Влa noble manВ». Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people; ВлmarshalВ» originally meant Влa horse manВ» now it is the highest military rank etc.

DEGRADATION

It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. ВлvillainВ» originally meant Влworking on a villaВ» now it means Влa scoundrelВ».

HYPERBOLE

It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration,

e.g. Влto hateВ»(doing something), (not to see somebody) Влfor agesВ».

Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. Влto make a mountain out of a molehillВ», Влto split hairsВ» etc.

LITOTE

It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or vica versa, e.g. not bad, no coward etc.

PHRASEOLOGY

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units ВлidiomsВ». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith ВлWords and IdiomsВ», V.Collins ВлA Book of English IdiomsВ» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

WAYS OF FORMING PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.

Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group :

a) Most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: Влlaunching padВ» in its terminological meaning is Влстартовая площадкаВ» , in its transferred meaning - Влотправной пунктВ», Влto link upВ» - Влcтыковаться, стыковать космические кораблиВ» in its tranformed meaning it means -ВлзнакомитьсяВ»;

b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming their meaning, e.g. Влgranny farmВ» - Влпансионат для престарелыхВ», ВлTroyan horseВ» - Влкомпьюторная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения компьютераВ»;

c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration , e.g. Влa sad sackВ» - Влнесчастный случайВ», Влculture vultureВ» - Влчеловек, интересующийся искусствомВ», Влfudge and nudgeВ» - ВлуклончивостьВ».

d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections, e.g. ВлMy aunt!В», Вл Hear, hear !В» etc

e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. Влodds and endsВ» was formed

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