Structural and semantic Characteristics of Nouns
Contents:
I. Introduction
1.1. General characteristics of the work
1.2. General Characteristics of English Nouns
The Main Part
2.1. Main Features of English Nouns
2.1.1. The Category of Case
2.1.2. The Category of Number of English Nouns
2.2. Structural Semantic Characteristics of English Nouns
2.2.1. Morphological Characteristics of Nouns
2.2.2. Syntactical Characteristics of Nouns
2.2.3. Characteristics of nouns due the way of their composition
2.2.4. Semantical Characteristics of Nouns
2.3. English Nouns in Speech
2.3.1. Noun Grammemes in Speech
2.3.2. The Use of Articles with Nouns in Some Set Expsessions
2.3.3. Test Exercises
2.4. Comparison of English and Russian nouns
II. Conclusion
III. Bibliography
IV. Appendix
I. Introduction
1.1 General characteristics of the work
The theme of my qualification work sounds as following: тАЬEnglish Nouns and Their Structural Semantic CharacteristicsтАЭ. This qualification work can be characterized by the following:
2. Actuality of the theme.
The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word. In the concept of substance we include not only names of living beings (e.g. boy, girl, bird) and lifeless things (e.g. table, chair, book), but also names of abstract notions, i.e. qualities, slates, actions (kindness, strength, sleep, fear, conversation, fight), abstracted from their bearers. In speech these types of nouns are treated in different ways, so one, who does not know ways of treatment, can make mistakes in his speech. Standing on such ground, we considered the theme of the work actual enough to make investigation.
3. The tasks and aims of the work.
1. The first aim of my work is to give definition to the term тАЬnounтАЭ.
2. Second task is to describe main features of English nouns.
3. Third task of my work is to give structural semantics characteristics to English nouns.
4. The novelty of the work.
Our work possesses novelty concluded in the fact that I worked out my own test exercises dealt with the composition of nouns and right usage of them.[1]
5. Practical significance of the work.
In our opinion the practical significance of our work is hard to be overvalued. This work reflects modern trends in linguistics and we hope it would serve as a good manual for those who wants to master modern English language.
6. Ways of scientific investigation used within the work.
The main method for compiling our work is the method of comparative analysis, translation method and the method of statistical research.
7. Fields of amplification.
The present work might find a good way of implying in the following spheres:
1. In High Schools and scientific circles of linguistic kind it can be successfully used by teachers and philologists as modern material for writing research works dealing with English nouns.
2. It can be used by teachers of schools, lyceums and colleges by teachers of English as a practical manual for teaching English grammar.
3. It can be useful for everyone who wants to enlarge his/her knowledge in English.
8. Linguists worked with the theme.
As the base for our qualification work we used the works of Russian linguists B.I.Rogovskaya, V. Kaushanskaya, M. Blokh and others [2]
.
8. Content of the work.
The present qualification work consists of four parts: introduction, the main part, conclusion and bibliography. It also includes the appendix where some interesting tables, schemes and illustrative thematic materials were gathered. Within the introduction part, which includes two items we gave the brief description of our qualification work (the first item) and gave general notion of the word тАЬnounтАЭ. The main part of our qualification work includes several items. There we discussed such problems as main features of English nouns, structural-semantic characteristics of them, and described ways of treatment of English nouns in speech. We also compared nouns of English and Russian languages. In the conclusion to our qualification work we tried to draw some results from the scientific investigations made within the main part of our qualification work. In bibliography part we mentioned more than 20 sources of which were used while compiling the present work. It includes linguistic books and articles dealing with the theme, a number of used dictionaries and encyclopedias and also some internet sources.
1.2 General Characteristics of English Nouns
The word "noun" comes from the Latin nomen meaning "name." Word classes like nouns were first described by Sanskrit grammarian Painini and ancient Greeks like Dionysios Thrax, and defined in terms of their morphological properties. For example, in Ancient Greece, nouns can be inflected for grammatical case, such as dative or accusative. Verbs, on the other hand, can be inflected for tenses, such as past, present or future, while nouns cannot. Aristotle also had a notion of onomata (nouns) and rhemata (verbs) which, however, does not exactly correspond our notions of verbs and nouns. In her dissertation, Vinokurova has a more detailed discussion of the historical origin of the notion of a noun.
Expressions of natural language will have properties at different levels. They have formal properties, like what kinds of morphological prefixes or suffixes they can take, and what kinds of other expressions they can combine with. but they also have semantic properties, i.e. properties pertaining to their meaning. The definition of nouns on the top of this page is thus a formal definition. That definition is uncontroversial, and has the advantage that it allows us to effectively distinguish nouns from non-nouns. However, it has the disadvandage that it does not apply to nouns in all languages. For example in Russian, there are no definite articles, so one cannot define nouns by means of those. There are also several attempts of defining nouns in terms of their semantic properties. Many of these are controversial, but some are discussed below.
In traditional school grammars, one often encounters the definition of nouns that they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, or idea, etc. This is a semantic definition. It has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being quite uninformative. Part of the problem is that the definition makes use of relatively general nouns ("thing," "phenomenon," "event") to define what nouns are. The existence of such general nouns shows us that nouns are organized in taxonomic hierarchies. But other kinds of expressions are also organized in hierarchies. For example all of the verbs "stroll," "saunter," "stride," and "tread" are more specific words than the more general "walk." The latter is more specific than the verb "move." But it is unlikely that such hierarchies can be used to define nouns and verbs. Furthermore, an influential theory has it that verbs like "kill" or "die" refer to events, and so they fall under the definition. Similarly, adjectives like "yellow" or "difficult" might be thought to refer to qualities, and adverbs like "outside" or "upstairs" seem to refer to places. Worse still, a trip into the woods can be referred to by the verbs "stroll" or "walk." But verbs, adjectives and adverbs are not nouns, and nouns aren't verbs. So the definition is not particularly helpful in distinguishing nouns from other parts of speech.
Another semantic definition of nouns is that they are prototypically referential. That definition is also not very helpful in distinguishing actual nouns from verbs. But it may still correctly identify a core property of nounhood. For example, we will tend to use nouns like "fool" and "car" when we wish to refer to fools and cars, respectively. The notion that this is prototypocal reflects the fact that such nouns can be used, even though nothing with the corresponding property is referred to:
John is no fool.
If I had a car, I'd go to Marakech.
The first sentence above doesn't refer to any fools, nor does the second one refer to any particular car.
In most cases in treating English nouns we shall keep to the conception of scientists that we refer to post-structural tendency It's because they combine the ideas of traditional and structural grammarians. The noun is classified into a separate word- group because:
1 .they all have the same lexical - grammatical meaning :
substance / thing
2.according to their form - they've two grammatical categories:
number and case
3.they all have typical stem-building elements :
- er, - ist, - ship, - ment, -hood ..
4.typical combinability with other words:
most often left-hand combinability.
5.function - the most characteristic feature of nouns is - they can be observed in all syntactic functions but predicate.
From the grammatical point of view most important is the division of nouns into countables and un-countables with regard to the category of number and into declinables and indeclinables with regard to the category of case[3]
. So after describing grammatical categories of English nouns we will try to classify them from different points of view.
II. The Main Part
2.1 Main Features of English Nouns.
2.1.1 The Category of Case
The category of case of nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girlтАФgirl's in English, дом тАФ дома тАФ дому тАФ дом тАФ домом тАФ (о) доме in Russian) showing the relations of the noun to other words in speech. Case relations reflect the relations of the substances the nouns name to other substances, actions, states, etc. in the world of reality [4]
. In the sentence тАШI took John's hat by mistakeтАЩ the case of the noun тАШJohn'sтАЩ shows its relation to the noun hat, which is some reflection of the relations between John and his hat in reality.
Case is one of those categories which show the close connection:
(a) between language and speech,
(b) between morphology and syntax.
(a) A case opposeme is, like any other opposeme, a unit of the language system, but the essential difference between the members of a case opposeme is in their combinability in speech. This is particularly clear in a language like Russian with a developed case system. Compare, for instance, the combinability of the nominative case and that of the oblique cases. See also the difference in the combinability of each oblique case: одобрять поступок, .не одобрять поступка, удивляться поступку, восхищаться поступком, etc.
We can see here that the difference between the cases is not so much a matter of meaning as a matter of combinability. It can be said that поступок тАФ поступка тАФ поступку, etc. are united paradigmatically in the Russian language on the basis of their syntagmatic differences in speech. Similarly, the members of the case opposeme John тАФ John's are united paradigmatically on the basis of their syntagmatic differences.
Naturally, both members of an English noun case opposeme have the features of English nouns, including their combinability. Thus, they may be preceded by an article, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun, etc.
a student ..ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа a student's ..
the student..,ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа the student's ..
a good student ..,ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа a good student's ..
his brother ..,ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа his brother's ..
the two brothers ..,ВаВаВаВаВаВа the two brothers' ..
Yet, the common case grammemes are used in a variety of combinations where the possessive case grammemes do not, as a rule, occur. In the following examples, for instance, John's or boys' can hardly be substituted for John or boys: John saw the boys, The boys were seen by John, It was owing to the boys that .., The boys and he .., etc.
(b) Though case is a morphological category it has a distinct syntactical significance. The common case grammemes fulfil a number of syntactical functions not typical of possessive case grammemes, among them the functions of subject and object. The possessive case noun is for the most part employed as an attribute.
All case opposemes are identical in content: they contain two particular meanings, of 'common' case and 'possessive' case, united by the general meaning of the category, that of 'case'. There is not much variety in the form of case opposemes either, which distinguishes English from Russian.
An English noun lexeme may contain two case opposemes at most (man тАФman's, men тАФmen's). Some lexemes have but one opposeme (England тАФ England's, cattle тАФ cattle's). Many lexemes have no case opposemes at all (book, news, foliage),
In the opposeme dog тАФ dog's, men тАФ men's, the 'common' case is not marked, i.e. dog and men have zero morphemes of 'common case'. The 'possessive' case is marked by the suffix -'s /-s, -z, -iz/. In the opposeme dogs тАФ dogs.' the difference between the opposites is marked only in writing. Otherwise the two opposites do not differ in form. So with regard to each other they are-not marked.
Thus, -'s is the only positive case morpheme of English nouns. It would be no exaggeration to say that the whole category' depends on this morpheme.
As already mentioned, with regard to the category of case English nouns fall under two lexico-grammatical subclasses: declinables, having case opposites, and indeclinables, having no case opposites.
The subclass of declinables is comparatively limited, including mostly nouns denoting living beings, also time and distance [5]
.
Indeclinables like book, iron, care have, as a norm, only the potential (or oblique, or lexico-grammatical) meaning of the common case. But it is sometimes actualized when a case opposite of these words is formed in speech, as in тАШThe book's philosophy is old-fashionedтАЩ. (The Tribune, Canada).
As usual, variants of one lexeme may belong to different subclasses. Youth meaning 'the state of being young' belongs to the indeclinables. Its variant youth meaning 'a young man' has a case opposite (The youth's candid smile disarmed her. Black and belongs to the declinables.
Since both cases and prepositions show 'relations of substances', some linguists speak of analytical cases in Modern English. To the student is said to be an analytical dative case (equivalent, for instance, to the Russian студенту), of the student is understood as an analytical genitive case (equivalent to студента), by the student as an analytical instrumental case (cf. студентом), etc.
The theory of analytical cases seems to be inconvincing for a number of reasons.
1.ВаВаВаВаВа In order to treat the combinations of the student, to the student, by the student as analytical words (like shall come or has come) we must regard of, to, with as grammatical word-morphemes [6]
. But then they are to be devoid of lexical meaning, which they are not. Like most words a preposition is usually polysemantic and each meaning is singled out in speech, in a sentence or a word-combination. Cf. to speak of the student, the speech of the student, news of the student, it was kind of the student, what became of the student, etc.
In each case of shows one of its lexical meanings. Therefore it cannot be regarded as a grammatical word-morpheme and the combination of the student cannot be treated as an analytical word.
2.ВаВаВаВаВа A grammatical category, as known, is represented in opposemes comprising a definite number of members. Combinations with different prepositions are too numerous to be interpreted as opposemes representing the category of case[7]
.
The number of cases in English becomes practically unlimited .
3.ВаВаВаВаВа Analytical words usually form opposemes with synthetic ones[8]
(comes тАФ came тАФ will come). With prepositional constructions it is different. They are often synonymous with synthetic words.
E. g. the son of my friend == my friend's son; the wall of the garden == the. garden wall.
On the other hand, prepositional constructions can be used side by side with synthetic cases, as in that doll of Mary's, a friend of John's. If we accepted the theory of analytical cases, we should see in of John's a double-case word[9]
, which would be some rarity in English, there being тАв'no double-tense words nor double-aspect words and the like [10]
.
4. There is much subjectivity in the choice of prepositions supposed to form analytical cases[11]
. Grammarians usually point out those prepositions whose meanings approximate to the meanings of some cases in other languages or in Old English. But the analogy with other languages or with an older stage of the same language does not prove the existence of a given category in a modern language.
Therefore we think it unjustified to speak of units like to the student, of the student, etc. as of analytical cases. They are combinations of nouns in the common case with prepositions.
The morpheme -'s, on which the category of case of English nouns depends (Вз 83), differs in some respects from other grammatical morphemes of the English language and from the case morphemes of other languages.
As emphasized by B. A. Ilyish [12]
, -'s is no longer a case inflexion in the classical sense of the word. Unlike such classical inflexions, -'s may be attached
a)ВаВаВаВаВа to adverbs (of substantival origin), as in yesterday's events,
b)ВаВаВаВаВа to word-groups, as in Mary and John's apartment, our professor of literature's unexpected departure,
c)ВаВаВаВаВаВа even to whole clauses, as in the well-worn example the man I saw yesterday's son.
В. A. Ilyish comes to-the conclusion that the -'s morpheme gradually develops into a "form-word"[13]
, a kind of particle serving to convey the meaning of belonging, possession[14]
.
G. N. Vorontsova does not recognize тАУтАШs as a case morpheme at all[15]
. The reasons she puts forward to substantiate her point of view are as follows:
1)ВаВаВаВаВа The use of -'s is optional (her brother's, of her brother).
2)ВаВаВаВаВа It is used with a limited group of nouns outside which it occurs very seldom.
3)ВаВаВаВаВа -'s is used both in the singular and in the plural (child's, children's), which is not incident- to case morphemes (cf. мальчик-а, мальчик-ов).
4)ВаВаВаВаВа It occurs in very few plurals, only those with the irregular formation of the plural member (oxen's but cows').
5)ВаВаВаВаВа -'s does not make an inseparable part of the structure of the word. It may be placed at some distance from the head-noun of an attributive group.
"Been reading that fellow what's his name's attacks in the 'Sunday Times'?" (Bennett).
Proceeding from these facts G. N. Vorontsova treats -'s as a 'postposition', a 'purely syntactical form-word resembling a preposition', used as a sign of syntactical dependence[16]
.
In keeping with this interpretation of the -'s morpheme the author denies the existence of cases in Modern English.
At present, however, this extreme point of view can hardly be accepted [17]
. The following arguments tend to show that -'s does function as a case morpheme.
1. The -'s morpheme is mostly attached to individual nouns e, not noun groups. According to our statistics this is observed in 96 per cent of examples with this morpheme. Instances like The man I saw yesterday's son are very rare and may be interpreted in more ways than one. As already mentioned, the demarcation line between words and combinations of words is very vague in English. A word-combination can easily be made to function as one word.
Cf. a hats-cleaned-by-electricity-while-you-wait establishment (O. Henry), the eighty-year-olds (D. W.).
In the last example the plural morpheme -s is in fact attached to an adjective word-combination, turning it into a noun. It can be maintained that the same morpheme тАУтАШs likewise substantivizes the group of words to which it is attached, and we get something like the man-1-saw-yesterday's son.
2.ВаВаВаВаВа Its general meaning тАФ "the relation of a noun to an other word" тАФ is a typical case meaning.
3.ВаВаВаВаВа The fact that -'s occurs, as a rule, with a more or less limited group of words bears testimony to its not being a "preposition-like form word". The use of the preposition is determined, chiefly, by the meaning of the preposition itself and not by the meaning of the noun it introduces (Cf. оn the table, in the table, under the table, over the table etc.)
4.ВаВаВаВаВа The fact that the possessive case is expressed in oxen тАФ oxen's by -'s and in cows тАФ cows' by zero cannot serve as an argument against the existence of cases in English nouns because -'s and zero are here forms of the same morpheme
a)ВаВаВаВаВа Their meanings are identical.
b)ВаВаВаВаВа Their distribution is complementary.
5.ВаВаВаВаВа As a minor argument against the view that -'s is "a preposition-like word", it is pointed out[18]
that -'s differs phonetically from all English prepositions in not having a vowel, a circumstance limiting its independence.
Yet, it cannot be denied that the peculiarities of the -'s morpheme are such as to admit no doubt of its being essentially different from the case morphemes of other languages. It is evident that the case system of Modern English is undergoing serious changes.
2.1.2. The Category of Number of English Nouns.
The category of number of English nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl тАФ girls, foot тАФ feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for one object or more than one, in other words, whether its grammatical meaning is 'oneness' or 'more-than-oneness' of objects.
The connection of the category with the world of material reality, though indirect, is quite transparent. Its meanings reflect the existence of individual objects and groups of objects in the material world.
All number opposemes are identical in content: they contain two particular meanings of 'singular' and 'plural' united by the general meaning of the category, that of 'number'. But there is a considerable variety of form in number opposemes, though it is not so great as in the Russian language.
An English noun lexeme can contain two number opposemes at most (toy тАФ boys, boy's тАФ boys'). Many lexemes have but one opposeme (table тАФ tables) and many others have no opposemes at all (ink, news).
In the opposeme boy тАФ boys 'singularity' is expressed by a zero morpheme and 'plurality' is marked by the positive morpheme /-z/, in spelling -.s. In other words, the 'singular' member of the opposeme is not marked, and the 'plural' member is marked.
In the opposeme boy's тАФ boys' both members have positive morphemes тАУтАШs, -sтАЩ, but these morphemes can be distinguished only in writing. In the spoken language their forms do not differ, so with regard to each other they are unmarked. They can be distinguished only by their combinability (cf. a boy's head, boys' heads).
In a few noun lexemes of foreign origin both members of a number opposeme are marked, e.g. symposium тАФ symposia, genus тАФ genera, phenomenonтАФphenomena, etc. But in the process of assimilation this peculiarity of foreign nouns gets gradually lost, and instead of medium тАФ media a new opposeme develops, medium тАФ mediums; instead of formula тАФ formulae, the usual form now is formula тАФ formulas. In this process, as we see, the foreign grammatical morphemes are neglected as such. The тАШpluralтАЩ morpheme is dropped altogether. The 'singular' morpheme becomes part of the stem. Finally, the regular -s ending is added to form the 'plural' opposite. As a result the 'singular' becomes unmarked, as typical of English, and the 'plural' gets its usual mark, the suffix -s.
Since the 'singular' member of a number opposeme is not marked, the form of the opposeme is, as a rule, determined by the form of the 'plural' morpheme, which, in its turn, depends upon the stem of the lexeme.
In the overwhelming majority of cases the form of the 'plural' morpheme is /-s/, /-z/, or /-z/, in spelling -(e)s, e. g, books, boys, matches.
With the stem ox- the form of the 'plural' morpheme is -en /-n/.
In the opposeme manтАФmen the form of the 'plural' morpheme is the vowel change /æ > e/. In woman тАФ women ii is /u > i/, in foot тАФ feet it is /u тАФ i:/, etc.
In child тАФ children the form of the 'plural' morpheme is complicated. It consists of the vowel change /ai > i/ and the suffix -ren.
In sheep тАФ sheep the 'plural' is not marked, thus coinciding in form with the 'singular'. They can be distinguished only by their combinability: тАШone sheepтАЩ, тАШfive sheepтАЩ, тАШa sheep was ..тАЩ, тАШsheep were ..тАЩ, тАШthis sheepтАЩ, тАШthese sheepтАЩ. The 'plural' coincides in form with the 'singular' also in тАШdeer, fish, carp, perch, trout, cod, salmonтАЩ, etc.[19]
All the 'plural' forms enumerated here are forms of the same morpheme. This can be proved, as we know , by the identity of the 'plural' meaning, and the complementary distribution of these forms, i.e. the fact that different forms are used with different stems.
As already mentioned [20]
, with regard to the category of number English nouns fall into two subclasses: countables and uncountables. The former have number opposites, the latter have not. Uncountable nouns are again subdivided into those having no plural opposites and those having no singular opposites.
Nouns like milk, geometry, self-possession having no plural opposites are usually called by a Latin name тАФ singularia tantum. Nouns like outskirts, clothes, goods having no singular opposites are known as pluralia tantum.
As a matter of fact, those nouns which have no number opposites are outside the grammatical category of number. But on the analogy of the bulk of English nouns they acquire oblique (or lexico-grammatical) meanings of number. Therefore singularia tantum are often treated as singulars and pluralia tantum as plurals.
This is justified both by their forms and by their combinability.
Cf. This (table, book, milk, love) is ..
These (tables, books, clothes, goods) are ..
When combinability and form contradict each other, combinability is decisive, which accounts for the fact that тАШpoliceтАЩ or тАШcattleтАЩ are regarded as plurals, and тАШmeaslesтАЩ, тАШmathematics as singulars.
The lexico-grammatical meaning of a class (or of a subclass) of words is, as we know, an abstraction from the lexical meanings of the words of the class, and depends to a certain extent on those lexical meanings. Therefore singularia tantum usually include nouns of certain lexical meanings. They are mostly material, abstract and collective nouns, such as sugar, gold, butter, brilliance, constancy, selfishness, humanity, soldiery, peasantry.
Yet it is not every material, abstract or collective noun that belongs to the group of singularia tantum (e. g. a plastic, a feeling, a crowd) and, what is more important, not in all of its meanings does a noun belong to this group.
As we have already seen[21]
, variants of the same lexeme may belong to different subclasses of a part of speech. In most of their meanings the words joy and sorrow as abstract nouns are singularia tantum.
E.g. He has been a good friend both in joy and in sоггоw. (Hornby).
But when concrete manifestations are meant, these nouns are countables and have plural opposites, e. g. the joys and sorrows of life.
Likewise, the words copper, tin, hair as material nouns are usually singularia tantum, but when they denote concrete objects, they become countables and get plural opposites: a copper тАФ coppers, a tin тАФ tins, a hair тАФ hairs.
Similarly, when the nouns wine, steel, salt denote some sort or variety of the substance, they become countables.
E. g. an expensive wine тАФ expensive wines.
All such cases are not a peculiarity of the English language alone. They are found in other languages as well. Cf. дерево тАФ деревья and дерево .is a material noun, платье тАФ платья and платье as a collective noun.
тАШJoyтАЩ and тАШa joyтАЩ, тАШbeautyтАЩ and тАШa beautyтАЩ, тАШcopperтАЩ and тАШa copperтАЩ, тАШhairтАЩ and тАШa hairтАЩ and many other pairs of this kind are not homonyms, as suggested by some grammarians[22]
, but variants of lexemes related by internal conversion.
If all such cases were regarded as homonyms, the number of homonyms in the English language would be practically limitless. If only some of them were treated as homonyms, that would give rise to uncontrolled subjectivity.
The group of pluralia tantum is mostly composed of nouns denoting objects consisting of two or more parts, complex phenomena or ceremonies, e. g. tongs, pincers, trousers, nuptials, obsequies. Here also belong some nouns with a distinct collective or material meaning, e.g. clothes, eaves, sweets.
Since in these words the -s suffix does not function as a grammatical morpheme, it gets lexicalized and develops into an inseparable part of the stem [23]
. This, probably, underlies the fact that such nouns as mathematics, optics, linguistics, mumps, measles are treated as singularia tantum.
Nouns like police, militia, cattle, poultry are pluralia tantum, judging by their combinability, though not by form [24]
.
People in the meaning of 'народ' is a countable noun. In the meaning of 'люди' it belongs to the pluralia tantum. Family in the sense of "a group of people who are related" is a countable noun. In the meaning of "individual members of this group" it belongs to the pluralia tantum. Thus, the lexeme family has two variants:
Sg.ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа PL
1)ВаВаВаВаВа familyВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа families
2)ВаВаВаВаВа тАФВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа family
E. g. Almost every family in the village has sent a man to the army. (Hornby).
Those were the oldest families in Jorkshire. (Black).
Her family were of a delicate constitution. (Bronte).
Similar variants are observed in the lexemes committee, government, board, crew, etc.
Colour in the meaning "red, green, blue, etc." is a countable noun. In the meaning "appearance of reality or truth" (e. g. His torn clothes gave colour to his story that lie had been attacked by robbers. A. Hornby.) it has no plural opposite and belongs to the singularia tantum. Colours in the sense of "materials used by painters and artists" has no singular opposite and belongs to the pluralia tantum.
Thus, the lexeme has three variants:
Sg.ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа Pl.
1)ВаВаВаВаВа colourВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа colours
2)ВаВаВаВаВа colourВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа тАФ
3)ВаВаВаВаВа тАФВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа colours.
When grammarians write that the lexical meanings of some plurals differ from those of their singular opposites [25]
, they simply compare different variants of a lexeme.
Sometimes variants of a lexeme may belong to the same lexico-grammatical subclass and yet have different forms of number opposemes.
Cf. ВаВаВа brother (son of same parents) тАФ brothers
brother (fellow member) тАФ brethren
fish тАФ fish (e.g. I caught five fish yesterday.)
fish тАФ fishes ('different species', e. g. ocean fishes).
A collective noun is a word that designates a group of objects or beings regarded as a whole, such as "flock", "team", or "corporation". Although many languages treat collective nouns as singular, in others they may be interpreted as plural. In British English, phrases such as the committee are meeting are common (the so-called agreement in sensu "in meaning", that is, with the meaning of a noun, rather than with its form). The use of this type of construction varies with dialect and level of formality.
All languages are able to specify the quantity of referents. They may do so by lexical means with words such as English a few, some, one, two, five hundred. However, not every language has a grammatical category of number. Grammatical number is expressed by morphological and/or syntactic means. That is, it is indicated by certain grammatical elements, such as through affixes or number words. Grammatical number may be thought of as the indication of semantic number through grammar.
Languages that express quantity only by lexical means lack a grammatical category of number. For instance, in Khmer, neither nouns nor verbs carry any grammatical information concerning number: such information can only be conveyed by lexical items such as khlah 'some', pii-bey 'a few', and so on.
Most languages of the world have formal means to express differences of number. The most widespread distinction, as found in English and many other languages, involves a simple two-way number contrast between singular and plural (car / cars; child / children, etc.). Other more elaborate systems of number are described below.
2.2 Structural Semantic Characteristics of English Nouns
2.2.1 Morphological Characteristics of Nouns
Due to the following morphological characteristics nouns can be classified in following ways:
1.ВаВаВаВаВа Nouns that can be counted have two numbers: singular and plural (e. g. singular: a girl, plural: girls).
2.ВаВаВаВаВа Nouns denoting living beings (and some nouns denoting lifeless things) have two case forms: the common case and the genitive case.
3.ВаВаВаВаВа It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English for it is hardly ever expressed by means of grammatical forms.
There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in Modern English, the suffix -es, expressing feminine gender. It is not widely used.ВаВаВаВаВаВа
heir тАФheir-ess
poet тАФ poet-ess
actor тАФ actr-ess
waiter тАФ waitr-ess
host - host-ess
lion тАФ lion-ess
tiger тАФ tigr-ess[26]
2.2.2 Syntactical Characteristics of Nouns
Due the syntactical characteristics nouns can be classified in following ways:
The chief syntactical functions of the noun in the sentence are those of the subject and the object. But it may also be used as an attribute or a predicative.
The sun was rising in all his splendid beauty. (Dickens) (subject)
Troy and Yates followed the tourists. (Heym) (object)
He (Bosinney) was an architect .. (Galsworthy) (predicative)
Mary brought in the fruit on a tray and with it a glass bowl, and a blue dish.. (Mansfield) (attribute; the noun glass is used in the common case)
The hero and heroine, of course, just arrived from his father's yacht. (Mansfield) (attribute; the noun father is used in the genitive case)
A noun preceded by a preposition (a prepositional phrase) may be used as attribute, prepositional indirect object, and adverbial modifier.
To the left were clean panes of glass. (Ch. Bronte) (attribute)
Bicket did not answer, his throat felt too dry. He had heard of the police. (Galsworthy) (object) She went into the drawing-room and lighted the fire. (Mansfield) (Adverbial modifier).
"Stop everything, Laura!" cried Jose in astonishment. (Mansfield) (Adverbial modifier).
The noun is generally associated with the article. Because of the comparative scarcity of morphological distinctions in English in some cases only articles show that the word is a noun.
A noun can be modified by an adjective, a pronoun, by another noun or by verbals.
2.2.3 Characteristics of nouns due the way of their composition
According to their morphological composition we distinguish simple, derivative and compound nouns.
1. Simple nouns are nouns which have neither prefixes no suffixes. They are indecomposable: chair, table, room, map, fish, work.
2. Derivative nouns are nouns which have derivative elements (prefixes or suffixes or both): reader, sailor, blackness, childhood, misconduct, inexperience.
Productive noun-forming suffixes are:
-er: reader, teacher, worker
-ist: communist, telegraphist, dramatist
-ess: heiress, hostess, actress
-ness: carelessness, madness, blackness
-ism: socialism, nationalism, imperialism
Unproductive suffixes are:
-hood: childhood, manhood
-dom: freedom
-ship: friendship, relationship
-meat: development
-ance: importance
-ence: dependence
-ty: cruelty
-ity: generosity
3. Compound nouns are nouns built from two or more stems. Compound nouns often have one stress. The meaning of a compound often differs from the meanings of its elements.
The main types of compound nouns are as follows:
(a)ВаВаВаВа noun-stem+noun-stem: appletree, snowball;
(b)ВаВаВаВа adjective-stem+noun-stem: blackbird, bluebell;
(c)ВаВаВаВа verb-stem+noun-stem: pickpocket; the stem of a gerund or of a participle may be the first component of a compound noun:
dining-room, reading-hall, dancing-girl.
2.2.4 Semantical Characteristics of Nouns
Nouns fall under two classes: (A) proper nouns; (B) common nouns[27]
.
a) Proper nouns are individual, names given to separate persons or things. As regards their meaning proper nouns may be personal names (Mary, Peter, Shakespeare), geographical names (Moscow, London, the Caucasus), the names of the months and of the days of the week (February, Monday), names of ships, hotels, clubs, etc.
A large number of nouns now proper were originally common nouns (Brown, Smith, Mason).
Proper nouns may change their meaning and become common nouns:
"George went over to the table and took a sandwich and a glass of champagne. (Aldington)
b) Common nouns are names that can be applied to any individual of ad ass of .persons or things (e.g. man, dog, book), collections of similar individuals or things regarded as a single unit (e. g. peasantry, family), materials (e. g. snow, iron, cotton) or abstract notions (e.g. kindness, development).
Thus there are different groups of common nouns: class nouns, collective nouns, nouns of material and abstract nouns.
1. Class nouns denote persons or things belonging to a class. They are countables and have two. numbers: singular and plural. They are generally used with an article.
"Well, sir," said Mrs. Parker, "I wasn't in the shop above a great deal." (Mansfield)
He goes to the part of the town where the shops are. (Lessing)
2. Collective nouns denote a number or collection of similar individuals or things as a single unit.
Collective nouns fall under the following groups:
(a)ВаВаВаВа nouns used only in the singular and denoting-a number of things collected together and regarded as a single object: foliage, machinery.
It was not restful, that green foliage. (London)
Machinery new to the industry in Australia was introduced for preparing land. (Agricultural Gazette)
(b)ВаВаВаВа nouns which are singular in form though plural in meaning:
police, poultry, cattle, people, gentry They are usually called nouns of multitude. When the subject of the sentence is a noun of multitude the verb used as predicate is in the plural:
I had no idea the police were so devilishly prudent. (Shaw)
Unless cattle are in good condition in calving, milk production will never reach a high level. (Agricultural Gazette)
The weather was warm and the people were sitting at their doors. (Dickens)
(c) nouns that may be both singular and plural: family, crowd, fleet, nation. We can think of a number of crowds, fleets or different nations as well as of a single crowd, fleet, etc.
A small crowd is lined up to see the guests arrive. (Shaw)
Accordingly they were soon afoot, and walking in the direction of the scene of action, towards which crowds of people were already pouring from a variety of quarters. (Dickens)
3. Nouns of material denote material: iron, gold, paper, tea, water. They are uncountables and are generally used without any article.
There was a scent of honey from the lime-trees in flower. (Galsworthy)
There was coffee still in the urn. (Wells)
Nouns of material are used in the plural to denote different sorts of a given material.
.. that his senior counted upon him in this enterprise, and had consigned a quantity of select wines to him.. (Thackeray)
Nouns of material may turn into class nouns (thus becoming countables) when they come to express an individual object of definite shape.
Compare:
- To the left were clean panes of glass. (Ch. Bronte)
"He came in here," said the waiter looking at the light through the tumbler, "ordered a glass of this ale." (Dickens)
But the person in the glass made a face at her, and Miss Moss went out. (Mansfield).
4. Abstract nouns denote some quality, state, action or idea: kindness, sadness, fight. They are usually uncountables, though some of them may be countables.
Therefore when the youngsters saw that mother looked neither frightened nor offended, they gathered new courage. (Dodge)
Accustomed to John Reed's abuse тАФ I never had an idea of plying it. (Ch. Bronte)
It's these people with fixed ideas. (Galsworthy)
Abstract nouns may change their meaning and become class nouns. This change is marked by the use of the article and of the plural number:
beautyВаВаВаВаВаВаВа a beauty ВаВаВа beauties
sightВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа a sightВаВаВаВаВаВаВа sights
He was responsive to beauty and here was cause to respond. (London)
She was a beauty. (Dickens)
.. but she isn't one of those horrid regular beauties. (Aldington)
2.3 English Nouns in Speech.
2.3.1 Noun Grammemes in Speech
An English noun lexeme may contain four words at most (boy, boys, boy's, boys'). Each of these words, as we know, represents not only the lexeme, but a certain grammeme as well. The grammeme represented by the word boy, for instance, includes all the English words having the two actual grammatical meanings of 'common case' and 'singular number' (girl, teacher, mile, etc.). The word book does not belong to this grammeme because it has only one actual grammatical meaning, that of 'singular number'. The meaning of 'common case' is only potential or oblique. So book represents another noun grammeme. The word England represents a different grammeme with the actual grammatical meaning of 'common case' (cf. England's) and the oblique grammatical meaning of 'singular number'.
If we assume that each grammatical meaning can be actual and oblique, there are four grammatical meanings of 'number', and they can be combined with four 'case' meanings each, to constitute 16 grammemes. In reality, however, the 'possessive case' meaning cannot be oblique in English, i. e. there are no words with the form and combinability of a 'possessive case' member of a case opposeme that have no 'common case' opposites. Nouns like St. Paul's, the baker's, denoting places, have certainly no opposites with the same lexical meaning and the 'common case' form, but their distribution resembles rather the distribution of 'common case' nouns (cf. at the baker's, from the baker's and at the shop, from Иге shop). If, however, we regard them as constituting a separate grammeme with the oblique meanings of 'singular number' and 'possessive case', we may speak of 13 noun grammemes in English. In the table1 (appendix) they are represented by one word each.
The frequency of the occurrence of different grammemes in speech[28]
is different. We have analysed several texts containing a total of 6,000 nouns and counted the occurrence of each grammeme. In the table 2 (Appendix) we give the results.
When analysing an opposeme of any category, we regard the grammatical meanings of its members as elementary, indivisible and unchangeable, determined only by the contrast with the opposite meanings. But in speech words are contrasted with other words not paradigmatically, in opposemes, but syntagmatically, in word-combinations. Depending on these combinations, grammatical meanings may vary considerably.
We must also take into consideration that single grammatical meanings may occur in speech only in case a word has but one such meaning. Otherwise all the grammatical meanings of a word go in a bunch characteristic of the grammeme to which the word belongs. So if we want to see the different shades a given grammatical meaning may acquire in speech, we are to analyse in a text the words of different grammemes containing that meaning. If, for instance, the variation of the 'singular' meaning is to be investigated we are to study the grammemes represented by the words boy, boy's, England, England's, book, milk, St. Paul's. We shall call them 'singular' grammemes for short.
The representatives of 'singular' grammemes constitute the bulk of nouns found in an English text (more than 70 per cent of the total number). Following is a brief summary of what a 'singular' noun may denote in speech.
1.ВаВаВаВаВа One object. The plane struck a seagull. (Daily Worker).
2.ВаВаВаВаВа A unique object. Shakespeare's name will live forever. (Ib.).
3.ВаВаВаВаВа A whole class of objects. The English gentleman is dead. (Walpole).
In this sense 'singularity' gets very close to 'plurality'. So close indeed, that sometimes 'singular' and 'plural' nouns are actually interchangeable.
Cf. The polar bear lives in thе North.
Polar bears live in the North.
Here as elsewhere extremes meet.
4.ВаВаВаВаВа A 'singular' collective noun stands for a group of beings or things viewed as an integrated whole, e. g. peasantry, humanity, mankind.
5.ВаВаВаВаВа A 'singular' abstract or material noun may show some abstract concept or substance which is not associated with any idea of singularity.
I have accepted with tolerance the established conventions of syntax. (Vallins).
Nouns representing 'plural' grammemes may denote:
1.ВаВаВаВаВа Two or more homogeneous objects.
Molly was very proud to be able to decide such questions. (Steinbeck).
2.ВаВаВаВаВа A whole class of objects.
The Hindus and the Muslims liked and trusted him. (Maugham).
Foreigners on the whole were very dangerous people. (Ib).
3.ВаВаВаВаВа A number of objects similar, though not identical (the plural of approximation).
A woman in her late thirties.
4.ВаВаВаВаВа Individual objects.
His trousers looked shabby.
5.ВаВаВаВаВа A mass of some substance.
A lion does not live on leavings. (Maxwell).
6. Boundless extension or repetition. The usage is aimed at producing a stylistic effect.
The snоws of the Polar Region. The waters of the Danube.
Nouns representing 'common case' grammemes express a wide range of meanings, the exhaustive examination of which is hardly feasible. Here are some of them.
1.ВаВаВаВаВа A doer of an action or the carrier of some property.
The young worker challenged the Prime Minister to go and meet Britain's jobless young people. (Daily Worker).
2.ВаВаВаВаВа A recipient of some action.
He wanted to employ the axiоims of arithmetic. (Whittaker).
3.ВаВаВаВаВа The person (or thing) for whom something is done.
He gave M a r у по time to change her mind. (Daily Worker).
4.ВаВаВаВаВа An instrument. When so used, the 'common case' noun is mostly associated with a preposition,
e. g. to cut with a knife.
5.ВаВаВаВаВа Circumstances of different events. When so used, the 'common case' noun is mostly introduced by a preposition.
Time: Every Saturday night she bought a joint of meat. (Coppard).
Place: I arrived at P a r k Lane. (Wilde).
Manner: Everything went off without a hitсh. (Hornby), etc.
6.ВаВаВаВаВа A property or characteristic of some substance.
The house committee was ready to act. (Daily Worker).
7.ВаВаВаВаВа A person or thing as an object of comparison.
That monster of a dog.
As we have seen, 'possessive case' nouns occur a great deal less frequently than their opposites[29]
.
The range of meaning of the possessive case is incomparably narrower than that of the common case. Yet linguists point out a number of meanings a 'possessive case' noun may express in speech[30]
.
a)ВаВаВаВаВа possession, belonging (Peter's bicycle)
b)ВаВаВаВаВа personal or social relations (Peter's wife)
c)ВаВаВаВаВаВа authorship (Peter's poem)
d)ВаВаВаВаВа origin or source (the sun's rays)
e)ВаВаВаВаВаВа kind or species (ladies' hats)
f)ВаВаВаВаВаВа the relation of the whole to its part (Peter's hand)
g)ВаВаВаВаВа subjective relations (Peter's arrival)
h) objective relations (Peter's being sent)
i) characteristic (her mother's care), (rather rare)
j) measure (a night's reflection; a mile's distance).
Sometimes the relations of a 'possessive case' noun are ambiguous. The relation in her daughter's loss may be interpreted either as subjective or as objective. This can be accounted for by the fact that her daughter's loss may be regarded as a transformation (or a transform) of two different sentences.
Her daughter lostВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа ==ВаВаВаВа daughterтАЩs loss
Her daughter was lost ВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа ==ВаВаВаВа daughterтАЩs loss
In other words, having no voice distinctions, the noun loss may correspond to both the active and the passive voice of the verb.
Since both 'possessive case' and 'common case' nouns may have right-hand connections with other nouns, it is interesting to see the difference between the two combinations in speech. This is what W. N. Francis writes on the subject [31]
: "Nouns make up a considerable number (as many as 25 per sent) of the single-word modifiers of nouns
PossessiveВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа Noun-adjunct
child's playВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа child psychology
a dog's lifeВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа the dog days
a day's workВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа the day shift'
my father's houseВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа a father image
that woman's doctorВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВаВа that woman doctor
The last pair illustrates vividly the difference in meaning there may be between these two structures of modification. The formal difference between them may be described as follows: a construction with of may be substituted for the possessive construction, and the determiner [32]
(if there is one) will then go with the modifying noun; on the other hand, some other kind of construction must be substituted for the noun-adjunct, and the determiner goes with the head noun. In the following illustrations the symbol > means "transforms into"
My father's house ВаВаВаВаВаВаВа >ВаВаВаВаВаВа house of my father
that father image > ВаВаВаВаВа that image like (a) father
that woman's doctor ВаВаВа > ВаВаВаВаВа doctor of that woman
that woman doctor ВаВаВаВаВаВа > ВаВаВаВаВа that doctor who is a woman.
As we see, the relations expressed by a 'possessive case' noun can usually be rendered by its 'common case' opposite preceded by of (the so-called 'of-phrase'). The 'possessive case' noun and the corresponding of-phrase are synonymous, but to a certain extent only.
Unlike the possessive case, the o/-phrase is freely used with all nouns irrespective of their lexical meanings. Its range of meaning is much wider than that of the possessive case. Thus, besides the 'possessive case' relations already mentioned it may show the relations of appraisal (a man of strong will), of material (a table of oak), of composition (a group of children), etc.
The of-phrase is believed to sound more formal than the possessive case. In formal style it is more common than the possessive.
E. g. Head of a girl (in a picture or sculpture exhibition programme), not a girl's head.
In the Russian language a noun in the genitive case may be adnominal and adverbial, i.e. it can be attached to a noun and to a verb.
E.g. дом отца, боюсь грозы.
The possessive case is practically adnominal, as in Tom's departure.
In sentences like The idea is George's, where George's is not followed by a noun, it is sometimes called the 'independent possessive'. But in reality it is not independent, as it refers to some noun, usually mentioned previously (the word idea in the sentence above). Therefore such possessives are called 'anaphorical'. But this term would be misapplied in cases like George's was a brilliant idea, where the noun idea follows the possessive.
Seeing that there is exact parallelism with the use of the so-called absolute possessive pronouns (The idea is mine. Mine was a brilliant idea), we shall call such possessives absolute.
In Modern English there exists a peculiar construction which is a combination of the possessive case and the of-phrase. The construction makes it possible to place an article, a demonstrative pronoun, etc. before the modified noun. Cf. John's friend and a (the, that) friend of John's. The possessive case in the construction is absolute. Cf. a (the, that) friend of yours.
The construction usually has a partitive meaning. A friend of Mary's тАФ one of Mary's friends. It may also be used for stylistic purposes mostly with ironic colouring. That long nose of John's.
In cases like I dined at my aunt's or a garden party at Brown's the possessive case is really independent. It does not refer to any other noun, and does not correspond to an absolute possessive pronoun. The meaning of the independent possessive is that of locality. It denotes the house, shop, cathedral, place of business, etc. of the person denoted by the noun. E. g. the baker's, draper's, watchmaker's, etc., also St. Paul's .
2.3.2 The use of Articles with Nouns in Some Set Expessions
a) The use of indefinite article with nouns in some set expressions.[33]
1. in a hurry тАФ второпях
Things done in a hurry are done badly.
2. to have a mind to do some thing (a great mind, a good mind) тАФ иметь желание что-либо сделать, быть склонным что-либо сделать
I have a great mind to have a serious talk with her.
3. to fly into a passion тАФ прийти в бешенство
If you contradict him, he will fly into a passion.
4. to get in a fury (in a rage) тАФ прийти и ярость
If you contradict him, he will get in a fury (in a rage).
5. to take a fancy to (chiefly with names of living beings) тАФ проникнуться симпатией, по чувствовать расположение
I wonder why she took a fancy to the little girl.
6. in a low (loud) voice тАФ тихо (громко)
Don't speak in a low voice.
7. a great many (with countables) тАФ много
I have spoken to him a great many times.
8. a great deal (with uncountables) тАФ много
We can't skate to-day, there is a great deal of snow on the ice.
9. it is a pity тАФжаль
It is a pity you did not go to the concert last night
10. it is a shame тАФ стыдно
It is a shame not to know these elementary things.
11. it is a pleasure тАФ приятно
It is a pleasure to read beautiful poetry.
12. as a result тАФв результате
As a result of the inhabitants' strenuous efforts the damaged city
13. to have a good time тАФ хорошо провести время
Last night we went to an evening party and had a very good time.
14. to be at a loss тАФбыть в недоумении
She was at a loss what to say.
15. at a glance тАФ сразу, с первого взгляда
She saw at a glance that something had happened.
b) The use of definite article with nouns in some set expressions.
1. it is out of the question тАФоб этом не может быть и речи
'Will you go to the theatre tonight?" "It's out of the question. I have lots of things to do."
2. to take the trouble to do something тАФ потрудиться
You had a difficult text to translate and you did not take the trouble to consult the dictionary.
3. in the original тАФ в оригинале
You know English well enough to read Dickens in the original.
4. to play the piano (the violin, the harp) тАФ играть на рояле (скрипке, арфе)
She plays the piano very well.
5. to keep the house тАФ сидеть дома
She has a cold and will have to keep the house for a couple of days.
6. to keep the bed тАФ соблюдать постельный режим
She has a bad cold and will have to keep the bed for a couple of days.
7. on the whole тАФ в целом
On the whole Tom is a pleasant fellow, but sometimes he has whims.
8. the other day (refers to the past) тАФ па днях
I met him the other day.
9. on the one handтАжon the other hand тАФ с одной стороны..с другой стороны
On the one hand he certainly excites suspicion, but on the other hand we have not enough evidence against him. (Oppenhe'un)
10. to tell (to speak) the truth тАФ говорить правду; to tell the truth тАФ no правде говоря
He always speaks (tells) the truth. To tell the truth, I don't like the girl.
11. to be on the safe side тАФдля верности
I am almost sure of the pronunciation of this name, but to be on the safe side let us consult the pronouncing dictionary.
c) Nouns in some set expressions use without an article.
1.ВаВаВаВаВа out of doors тАФ на дворе, на улице, вне дома
The children spent most of the time out of doors.
2.ВаВаВаВаВа to take to heart тАФ принимать близко к сердцу
Don't take things too much to heart.
3.ВаВаВаВаВа to take offence тАФ обижаться
If he had heard your remark, he would have taken offence.
4.ВаВаВаВаВа to"1 give (to get, to asft) per missionтАФ дать (получить, просить) разрешение
I asked permission to keep the book a little longer.
5.ВаВаВаВаВа to lose heart тАФтерять мужество, приходить в уныние
He found the subject very difficult at first, but he did not lose heart.
6. at present тАФ в настоящее время
You may go home, we don't want you at present.
7.ВаВаВаВаВа from morning till nightтАФс утра до вечера
He worked in his litte garden from morning till night.
Ва8.ВаВаВаВа from head to foot тАФс головы до ног
She was dressed in furs from liead to foot.
9.ВаВаВаВаВа from beginning to end тАФ с начала до конца
The whole story is a lie from beginning to end.
10.ВаВаВа at first sight тАФ с первого взгляда
He fell in love with her- at first sight.
11.ВаВаВа by chance тАФ случайно
They met quite by chance.
12.ВаВаВа by mistake тАФ по ошибке
I have brought the wrong book by mistake.
13.ВаВаВа for hours тАФчасами
He could read for hours.
14.ВаВаВа for ages тАФцелую вечность
I have not seen you for ages.
15. by land, by air, by sea тАФ сушей, по воздуху, морем
I like travelling by sea.
16.ВаВаВа to go to sea тАФ стать моряком
My sister wants to be a doctor, and my brother wants to go to sea.
17.ВаВаВа on deck тАФ на палубе
We spent hours on deck.
18.ВаВаВа to keep house тАФвести хозяйство
Her sister keeps house for her.
19.ВаВаВа at sunrise тАФна рассвете
We left the town at sunrise.
20.ВаВаВа at sunset тАФ на закате
We arrived at the village at sunset.
21.ВаВаВа at work тАФза работой
Whenever I come, he is always at work.
22.ВаВаВа at peace тАФ в мире
We want to be at peace with all countries.
2.3.3. Test Exercises
Test 1
Make personal nouns from these words.
1. drama (____ = someone who writes plays)
2. guard (____ = a person who cares for persons or property)
3. police (____ = a member of a police force)
4. botany (____ = a biologist specializing in the study of plants)
5. surgery (____ = a physician who specializes in surgery)
6. diet (____ = a specialist in the study of nutrition)
7. idealism (____ = someone guided more by ideals than by practical considerations)
8. technique (____ = someone known for high skill in some intellectual or artistic technique)
9. mathematics (____ = a person skilled in mathematics)
10. accounting (____ = someone who maintains and audits business accounts)
11. drug (____ = a health professional trained in the art of preparing and dispensing drugs)
12. essay (____ = a writer of literary works)
13. shoe (____ = a person who makes or repairs shoes)
14. satire (____ = uses ridicule, irony, sarcasm)
15. beauty (____ = someone who works in a beauty parlour)
16. grammar (____ = a linguist who specializes in the study of grammar and syntax)
17. dentistry (____ = a person qualified to practice dentistry)
18. assistance (____ = a person who helps some
Вместе с этим смотрят:
A history of the english language
Affixation in modern english
AIDS
Airplanes and security
American Riddles